MONTEITH'S 


POPULAR  SCIENCE 


NAIJES  OF  OBJECTS  AND  PLACES 

REPRESENTED   ON    THE 

KEY  TO  PICTORIAL  CHART. 


1,  Ocean,  with  ships,  &c. 

2,  Vapor  rising  from  ocean. 

3,  Rain. 

4,  Mountains. 

5,  Volcano. 

6,  Mountain  Stream. 

7,  Mountain  Lake. 

8,  Geyser. 

9,  Waterfall. 
10,  Spring. 

n,  Canon,  formed  by  river. 

12,  Rapids. 

13,  Lakes,  at  different  elevations. 

14,  15,  Canal,  with  locks. 

16,  Reservoir  and  Tower. 

17,  Gulf  or  Bay. 

18,  Islands. 

19,  Peninsula. 

20,  Isthmus. 

21,  Strait. 

22,  Channel. 

23,  Cape. 

24,  Promontory. 

25,  Seaport. 

26,  Manufacturing  Town. 

27,  Village. 


28,  Mining  Town. 

29,  Watershed. 

30,  Mine  and  Engine  House. 

31,  Chute  or  Shoot,  from  mine. 

32,  Railroad  Tunnel. 

33,  Snow-shed,  on  railroad. 

34,  Ship  yard  and  Floating 

Docks. 

35,  Mill. 

36,  Ice-houses. 

37,  Rainbow. 

38,  Waterspout. 

39,  Salt  Works. 

40,  Emigrants  moving. 

41,  Lassoing  Cattle. 

42,  Indians  hunting  Buffaloes. 

45,  Fort  on  seacoast. 

46,  Vineyard. 

47,  Horizon. 

48,  49,  50,  Ships,  showing  ro- 

tundity of  the  Earth. 

51,  Seaside  Resort. 

52,  Oil  Well. 

53,  Windmill. 

54,  Suspension  Bridge. 

55,  Eagle. 


[For pages  pn  which  the*?  vre  Described  see  "  CONTENTS."] 


EASY    LESSONS 


POPULAR  SCIENCE; 


AND 


HAND-BOOK  TO  PICTORIAL  CHART 


COMBINING    THE 


CATECHETICAL, 


OBJECT 


WITH  MAPS,  ILLUSTRATIONS,  AND   LESSONS  IN  DRAWING, 
SPELLING,  AND  COMPOSITION. 


BY  JAMES    MONTEITH, 

Author  of  School  Geographies,  etc. 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  .:.  CHICAGO 

AMERICAN      BOOK      COMPANY 


FROM   THE    PEBSS   OF 

A.     S.     BARNES     &    CO. 


•••-.:  Q 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

WHAT  WE  SEE  ABOUT  US 4 

Balloon  Voyage  around  the  World— Shape  and  Motions  of  the  Earth 
—Day  and  Night-Air—Wind-Attraction. 

WATER    ON    THE    EARTH I3 

Its  uses— What  is  in  it  and  what  comes  from  it— Voyage  of  a  Drop 
of  Water— Vapor— Rain. 

PEOPLE    AND    DIVISIONS    OF    THE    WORLD 35 

MAP   OF   THE   WORLD,  WITH  EXERCISES 40 

CURRENTS    OF    THE    OCEAN 42 

Their  Effects— Gulf  Stream. 

SHIPS,    DOCKS,  SHIP    BUILDING 45 

Machinery— Ironclads— Floating  Docks— Dry  Docks. 

RIVERS,    WATERFALLS,    LAKES 59 

Their  uses— Mills—  Lumber— Inundations. 

SPRINGS   AND   WELLS— How  FORMED 70 

Pumps— Artesian  Wells— Oil  Wells— Salt  Springs. 

CAPES,    ISLANDS,  STRAITS— PENINSULAS— TUNNELS,  Etc 77 

CANALS   AND    LOCKS;    How  BUILT  AND  USED 80 

AQUEDUCTS,  RESERVOIRS,  TOWERS,  STAND  PIPES    86 

BRIDGES;   How  BUILT 88 

Divers  at  work— Suspension  Bridges— St.  Louis  Bridge. 

MAP    OF    NORTH    AMERICA 95 

What  we  know  about  North  America. 


TREES  AND    PLANTS:    How  AND  WHERE  THEY  GROW 

Their  uses  for  Food,  Drink,  Clothing,  Building,  Furniture,  Medi- 
cines, etc. 

Copyright^  1879,  by  James  Monteith. 


Contents. 


in 


PAGE 

MAP    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA. 140 

What  we  know  about  South  America. 

MINFS   AND    MIKING 144 

Iron,  Gold,  Silver,  Steel,  Copper,  Tin,  Zinc,  Lead,  Salt— How  and 
from  what  Coal  is  formed. 

MAP   OF    EUROPE 160 

What  we  know  about  Europe. 

MOUNTAINS  AND  VOLCANOES 163 

Vesuvius— Pompeii— Herculaneum— Stromboli. 

LIGHT-HOUSES— How  BUILT— THEIR  USES 167 

WINDMILLS— THEIR  USES 169 

BALLOONS— WHY  THEY  RISE— How  THEY  MOVE 171 

MAP    OF    ASIA ,. 174 

What  we  know  about  Asia. 

BIRDS:    Their  Nature,  Variety,  Ingenuity  and  Uses 177 

COMPARATIVE    SIZES    OF    BIRDS 198 


MAP    OF    AFRICA 

What  we  know  about  Africa. 


ANIMALS— WILD  AND  DOMESTIC 203 

Their  Variety,  Distribution  and  Uses. 

COMPARATIVE    SIZES    OF    ANIMALS 232 

INSECTS— Their  Nature,  Variety  and  Uses 234 

MAP    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 248 

What  we  know  about  the  United  States. 

WRITTEN    EXERCISES— SPELLING  AND  COMPOSITION,  58,  69,  76,  93, 
96,  133,  134,  139,  158,  166,  173,  199. 


THE  PICTORIAL  CHART  is  designed  for  the  class-room  wall. 
It  is  mounted  on  cloth  and  rollers  and  measures  42  by  55  inches.  (Key  on 
following  page.)  It  represents  in  an  immense  landscape,  all  the  Divisions  of 
Land  and  Water— Ocean— Lakes— Streams— Mountains— Islands— Vapor— Rain 
—Snow — Agriculture — Mining — Manufacture — Commerce,  Etc.,  Etc.,  as  seen 
on  a  voyage  around  the  world.  It  is  adapted  to  ORAL  and  OBJECT  TEACHING. 

54!;")  41 


CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THIS  BOOK. 


It  contains  PRIMARY  SCIENCES  FOR  TWO  GRADES  ;  the  lowev 
(comprising  very  young  children)  to  be  restricted  to  the 
paragraphs  in  large  type. 

Method. — BY  ILLUSTRATION,  COMPARISON  and  FAMILIAR  CON- 
VERSATIONS. OBJECTS  are  illustrated  on  a  large  PICTORIAL 
CHART  for  wall  of  Class-room ;  and  on  BLACKBOARD, 
according  to  given  directions  for  drawing. 

Topics. — SHORT  and  VARIED — those  suggested  on  an  excursion 
in  the  country  by  a  teacher  and  her  class  ;  such  as  Air, 
Water,  Rocks,  Land, — what  they  contain  and  what  are  their 
uses ;  with  interesting  lessons  on  Rain,  Rivers,  Plants, 
Trees,  Agriculture,  Mining,  Manufacture,  Fishes,.  Birds, 
Animals,  Insects,  Geography,  etc. 

Exercises,  also  SHORT  and  VARIED,  include : 
READING  ; 

DRAWING  on  BLACKBOARD  and  SLATES; 
ORAL  EXERCISES,  with  Questions  and  Answers  , 
WRITTEN  REVIEWS,  combining  Spelling  and  Composition. 

Exercises  on  the  PICTORIAL  CHART  and  WALL  MAP  OF  THE 
WORLD. 

Although  adapted  to  the  PICTORIAL  CHART,  the  book  is  complete 
in  itself  and  maybe  used  independently  as  a  TEXT-BOOK  for 
Primary  Classes  or  for  ORAL  INSTRUCTION  by  the  teacher. 

It  contains  numerous  Wood  Engravings  and  Colored  Maps. 

Its  object  is  not  only  to  INSTRUCT,  but  to  EDUCATE, — to  draw 
out  and  strengthen  the  reasoning  faculties,  and  to  encour- 
age habits  of  observing,  thinking,  analyzing  and  comparing. 


EASY     LESSONS: 


POPULAR     SCIENCE, 


CHAPTER    I. 

DIRECTIONS. 

To  conduct  the  lessons,  Monteith's  Pic- 
torial Chart  and  a  large  map  of  the  world 
should  be  hung  on  the  wall  in  full  view  of  the 
class.  A  globe,  also,  should  be  shown.  The 
teacher  will  then  read  aloud  from  the  Hand- 
book, pausing  for  answers  which  the  pupils 
may  be  able  to  give  to  the  questions. 

The  names  in  black-faced  type,  as  ocean, 
surface,  clouds,  etc.,  should  be  pointed  out 
on  the  chart  or  map  when  they  are  mentioned. 
This  may  be  done  either  by  the  teacher  or  by 
the  pupils  in  turn. 

The  illustrations  should  be  drawn  on  the 
blackboard  by  the  teacher,  and  by  the  children 
also,  on  their  slates. 

(In  classes  composed  of  very  young  children,  the  spell- 
ing and  other  exercises  in  small  type  may,  at  the  discretion 
of  the  teacher,  be  omitted  in  the  first  course.  The  words 
in  the  spelling  exercises  should  be  written  on  slates  by  the 
pupils.) 


4  The  EartJis  Surface. 


1.  If  you  should  take  a  long  walk  from  the 
city,  town,  or  village  in  which  you  live,  you 
might  see  people,  houses,  streets,  roads,  fields, 
trees,    streams,    ponds,    mills,    factories,   horses, 
cows,  sheep,  and  other  animals ;   perhaps  you 
would  see  a  part  of  the  ocean,  on  which  great 
ships  and  steamers  sail. 

2.  The   ocean  and  fields  are  parts  of  the 
earth's  surface.     People,  animals,  trees,  houses, 
ships,  etc,,  are  on  the  surface.     When  you  see 
flies  on  an  orange,  you  may  say  they  are  on  its 
surface  or  outside  part,  just  as  people  and  ani- 
mals are  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  is 
round  like  an  orange. 

3.  When  you  look  upwards  and  around  you, 
you  may  see  the  sky,  the   sun,  and,  perhaps, 
clouds  ;  at  night,  you  may  see  the  moon  and 
stars,  and    other  bodies  called   planets,   which 
look  like  stars. 

4.  All  this  time  you  are  breathing — what  ? 
Air.      Without   air   you   could    not   live,   nor 
could   any  animal,  bird,  or  fish,   or   tree  live. 
Sometimes  the  air  is  still,  sometimes  it  moves 
gently  and  you  are  able  to  fly  your  kite  ;  then, 
again,  it  rushes  powerfully  and  fearfully,  blowing 
down  trees,  fences,  and  houses,  and  sinking  ships. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— City,  town,  ship,  village, 
trees,  bird,  stream,  fish,  surface,  kite,  mill,  factory. 


A  ir  —  Wind — A  t  traction.  5 

5.  This  we  call  wind.     You  feel  the  air,  you 
breathe  it,  you  see  the  effects  of  the  wind,  yet 
you  have  never  seen  air  or  wind     You  admit 
that  there  is  air  and  that  there  is  wind,  although 
both  are  invisible.    What  does  invisible  mean  ? 
Are  houses  and  trees  visible  or  invisible  ? 

6.  Now,  as  the  earth  is  round  (or  very  nearly 
so)  like  a  great  ball,  and  people  travel  or  sail 
around  on  every  part  of  it,  what  is  it  that  keeps 
them  from  falling  off  from  this  great  ball  called 
the  earth  ?     It  is  something  that  is  both  useful 
and  powerful.     It  is  also  invisible.     When  you 
throw  your  ball  high  in  the  air,  it  is  brought 
back  again  by  something  which  you  cannot  see, 
by   this    other   invisible    power ;    without    this 
power  your  ball  would   never   come   back  to 
you.     When  chestnuts  are  ripe,  and  when  you 
throw  a  stone  into  an  apple-tree  in  the  autumn, 
the  chestnuts  and   apples  are   brought  to   the 
ground  by  this  same  invisible  power.     Do  you 
know  what  we 'call  it  ?     Attraction.     Without 
this  attraction  which  the  earth  has,  those  chest- 
nuts and  apples  would  be  as  likely  to  fly  away 
toward  the  moon  or  the  sun  or  some  of  the 
stars.     Without    this   power  which    the    earth 
has  of  drawing  or  attracting  to  itself  (always 
downward),  the  farmer  could  not  sow  his  seed, 
for  it  would   be   as   likely   to   fly  toward   the 
clouds  as  to  fall  on  the  ground  ;  the  carpenter 


6  The  Earths  Shape — Geography. 

and  the  mason  would  not  be  able  to  keep  their 
boards  and  bricks  just  where  they  wanted  them  ; 
the  chairs,  tables,  and  beds  in  your  houses  would 
be  as  likely  to  rest  against  the  ceiling  as  on  the 
floor  ;  and  your  sleds  would  no  longer  rush 
down  hill  on  the  smooth  snow  in  winter. 


Blackboard  drawing"  to  illustrate  Up  and  Down.  The  teacher 
may  draw  by  means  of  a  piece  of  cord  twelve  inches  in 
length  a  circle  to  represent  the  Earth.  On  it  mark  arrows 
as  shown  in  model,  all  pointing-  to  the  center,  and,  conse- 
quently, Downward;  then  mark  other  arrows  pointing-  from 
the  center,  or  Upward. 

Another  circle  may  be  similarly  drawn,  and  on  it  trees  be 
represented  all  pointing-  Upward.  The  directions  to  and 
from  the  center,  or  down  and  up,  should  be  clearly  explained 
to  the  class. 

7.  In   what  direction  does   the   earth  draw  or  attract 
objects  ?     Downward,  or  toward  its  center.     In  what  direc- 
tion is  up  ?     From  the  center  of  the  earth,  or  over  your  head. 
Point  upward;  downward. 

8.  Now,  a  knowledge  of  all  these  things,  as 
well  as  of  different  countries,  mountains,  and 
places  on  the  earth,  and  of  the  wonderful  fitness 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Air,  wind,  apple,  earth, 
farmer,  up,  down,  sled,  snow,  board,  bricks. 


The  Earth  is  Round.  7 

of  them  for  people's  enjoyment  and  welfare,  may 
be  obtained  by  studying  geography. 

9.  When  we  look  at  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars, 
we  see  they  are  round  ;  and  if  there  are  people 
living  on  the  moon  now,  they  would  look  at 
this  world  or  earth  and  see  that  it  too  is  round 


Blackboard  drawing-  to  show  Rotundity  of  the  Earth.  With 
chalk  and  a  cord  two  feet  long-  describe  an  arc  as  here 
shown.  On  the  left  draw  a  part  of  the  coast  of  North  Amer- 
ica, with  a  lig-hthouse  on  Newfoundland;  on  the  rig-lit, 
England,  Ireland,  and  the  coasts  of  Europe  and  Africa. 
Prom  the  top  of  the  lighthouse  draw  a  straight  line  touch- 
ing the  Arc  or  Surface  of  the  Earth;  then  show  ships  on 
the  Atlantic  in  different  positions,  one  below  the  horizon, 
another  partly  above,  and  another  wholly  above  it.  The 
straight  line  is  the  Line  of  Vision  to  a  man  in  the  light- 
house, and  the  point  where  that  line  touches  the  arc  or  sur- 
face shows  the  extent  of  his  Horizon.  The  lighthouse  and 
masts  all  point  from  the  center  of  the  earth. 

10.  How  have  men  proved  the  earth  to  be  spherical,  or 
round  like  a  ball  ?  Men  have  sailed  around  it  as  flies  travel 
around  an  orange  ;  then,  again,  the  hull,  or  body  of  a  distant 
ship  coming  toward  you.  is  not  seen  as  soon  as  its  topmast. 

Which  is  the  larger  body,  the  sun  or  moon  ?  The  sun. 
Why  does  the  sun  not  look  much  larger  than  the  moon  ? 
Because  it  is  a  great  deal  further  from  us  than  the  moon  is. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Orange,  round,  spheri- 
cal, hull,  top-mast,  center,  geography,  lighthouse. 


8     The  Earth's  Size,  Motions,  and  Seasons. 

1 1.  The  earth  is  larger  than  the  moon,  the 
sun  is  larger  than  the  earth,  and  some  of  the 
stars  are  larger  than  the  sun. 

(Here  the  teacher  may  draw  on  the  black-board  a  circle 
one  inch  in  diameter  to  represent  the  moon ;  another,  four 
inches  in  diameter  to  represent  the  earth;  and  for  the  sun,i 
give  them  an  idea  of  a  ball  40  feet  in  diameter ;  thus  show- 
ing their  comparative  size.) 

12.  If  you  can  imagine  a  rope  stretched  from  the  earth 
to  the  sun,  and  400  knots  on  it  equally  distant  from  each 
other,  the  place  of  the  moon  would  be  at  the  knot  nearest 
the  earth. 

13.  The  earth  moves  around  the  sun,  and  the 
moon  moves  around  the  earth. 

(To  explain  these  motions,  one  of  the  pupils  may  re- 
present the  sun,  another  walk  around  him  to  represent  the 
earth,  and  a  third  walk  around  the  second,  to  represent 
the  moon.) 

14.  If  the   earth   did   not   move   or  revolve 
around  the  sun,  we  should  have  no  change  of 
seasons.     Mention  the  seasons.     What  can  you 
say  of  winter  ?     Of  spring  ?     Of  summer  ?     Of 
autumn  ? 

1 5.  The  earth  has  another  motion  :  it  turns 
around  as  a  top  spins,  or  as  you  might  turn  an 
apple  around  on  a  knitting-needle.     This  kind 
of  turning  is  called  rotation,  and  causes  change 
from  day  to  night,  and  from  night  to  day. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Sun,  moon,  circle,  spring, 
summer,  autumn,  winter,  knot,  knitting-needle. 


Day — Night — Sunrise.  9 

1 6.  I  shall  now  show  on  the  blackboard  how 
day  and  night  are  caused.  The  lamp  represents 
the  sun,  and  the  apple  stands  for  the  earth.  The 
sun  gives  light  to  that  side  of  the  earth  which 
is  opposite  it,  as  is  shown  by  the  bright  side  of 
the  apple,  which  represents  day.  The  side  turned 
away  from  the  sun  is  dark — there  it  is  night 
If  the  earth  did  not  turn  on  its  axis  (or  rotate) 
we  would  not  have  night  and  day  as  we  now 
have  them. 


To  oe  drawn  on  the  blackboard  to  explain  the  succession  of 
Day  and  Night.  The  lamp  represents  the  Sun ;  the  apple, 
the  Earth;  the  needle  .on  which  the  apple  turns  represents 
the  Axis  of  the  Earth. 

(The  teacher  should  now  and  then  tell  the  children  a 
story  touching  any  of  the  points  in  the  lessons.) 

1 7.  When  you  say  the  sun  rises  in  the  east  in 
the  morning,  it  only  appears  to  rise.  It  is  not 
the  sun  which  moves  from  the  east  upward  and 
nearly  over  your  head,  and  then  down  in  the 
west  in  the  evening.  It  only  appears  to  do  so. 


i  o          Sun — A  ir — A  ttr  action — Heat. 

It  is  really  the  earth,  or  that  part  of  it  on  which 
we  live,  that  moves  around  the  other  way,  to- 
ward the  sun  in  the  morning,  and  away  from  it 
all  the  afternoon  ;  that  is,  from  the  west  over  to 
the  east.  When  you  are  on  a  steamboat  sail- 
ing swiftly  and  smoothly,  the  trees  on  the  shore 
appear  to  move  toward  you,  then  past  and  be- 
hind you,  yet  you  know  it  is  the  steamboat 
that  moves — not  the  trees. 

1 8.  Without  the  sun  we  should  have  no  heat 
or  light.     Would  we  not  have  wood  to   burn 
and  give  us  light  ?     We  would  not ;  for  without 
the  sun's  heat  trees  would  not  grow.     Would 
we    not    have    the    moon    to    shine   for    us? 
The  moon  would  not  give  us  any  light,  for  it  is 
the  sun  shining  upon  the  moon  that  makes  it 
bright  and  gives  us  moonlight  nights.     So,  with- 
out the  sun,  there  would  be  no  light  on   the 
earth — no  plants,  trees,  animals,  birds,  fishes,  or 
people. 

19.  You  have  learned  how  important  are  the 
sun,  air,  and  attraction.     You  will,  in  the  next 
chapter,  learn  about  rain,  how  it  depends  upon 
the  sun,  air,  and  winds,  and  how  they  all  work 
together   beautifully  and   continually  in    order 
that  all  people  may  have  food  to  eat,  water  to 
drink,  and  pleasant  places  to  live  in. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Day,  light,  night,  coal. 


A  Balloon  Voyage  around  the  Earth.     1 1 

20.  Suppose  you  should  start  some  pleasant 
morning  in  a  balloon  that  could  move  all  the 
way  around  the  world  before  dark  the  same 
day.  Of  course,  that  has  never  been  done,  for 
the  distance  is  too  great,  but  suppose  it  could 
be  done.  What  would  you  see  ?  (The  teacher 
may  here  pause  for  answers.)  Well,  you  would 
glide  over  an  immense  portion  of  land,  called 
a  continent,  a  portion  of  which  you  see  in  the 
chart  (pointing  to  all  the  land).  On  this  con- 
tinent you  would  see  mountains,  hills, 
valleys,  rivers,  lakes,  farms,  and  trees. 
You  might  see  men  at  work  in  the  fields,  others 
building  houses,  or  bridges,  or  railroads  ;  some 
busy  in  great  factories  and  mills  making  cloth, 
shoes,  food,  tools,  wagons,  and  other  things  too 
numerous  to  mention.  Here  and  there  you 
would  see  cities,  towns,  and  villages,  and,  be- 
yond them,  houses  scattered  here  and  there  ; 
then,  perhaps,  a  forest,  a  wilderness  or  wild 
place,  inhabited  only  by  Indians  and  wild  ani- 
mals ;  then,  perhaps,  beautiful  valleys,  plains, 
streams,  and  busy  towns  ;  and  all  at  once  you 
might  come  to  a  body  of  water  which  extends 
much  further  than  your  eye  could  reach.  That 
is  an  ocean.  In  it,  dotted  here  and  there,  you 
might  see  islands,  which  also  contain  trees,  hills, 
lakes,  people,  birds,  animals,  etc.,  all  different  in 
appearance  from  any  you  had  seen  before.  And 


12  Balloon  Voyage,  continued. 

you  would  wonder  to  find  that,  as  you  rush  so 
rapidly  over  land  and  sea,  some  places  have  clear 
weather ;  others,  cloudy  ;  and  still  others  rainy 
or  stormy,  all  in  the  same  day. 

21.  Now,  after  your  return  home,  which  you 
would  be  sure  to  reach  if  your  balloon  kept  in 
the  precise  course  it  started  out  on,  you  would, 
probably,  sit  down  and  write  about  all  the  places, 
people,  etc.,  you  saw  ;  and,  for  the   instruction 
and  pleasure  of  those  boys  and  girls  who  were 
unable  to  take  such  a  voyage,  you  would,  per- 
haps, fill  a  book  with   your  description  :   that 
would  be  geography,  which  is  simply  a  de- 
scription of  the  earth's  surface.     What  is  geo- 
graphy ?     What   is   an    ocean  ?      The   largest 
division  of  water.     WThat  is  a  continent  ?     The 
largest  division  of  land. 

22.  How  does  an  island  resemble  a  continent  ?     Both 
are  surrounded  by  water.     What  is  the  difference  between 
them  ?     A  continent  is  larger  than  an  island. 

24.  In  your  description  you  would  show  draw- 
ings or  maps  something  like  this. 

Here  the  teacher  may  draw  on  the  black- 
board (if  not  previously  drawn)  a  map  of  his  or 
her  school,  school-grounds  and  vicinity.  (See 
pp.  38  and  39.) 

SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Continent,  island,  bal- 
loon, voyage,  people,  wrice,  ocean,  geography. 


The  Ocean.  1 3 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  OCEAN. 

(Observe  the  directions  given  at  the  head  of 
Chapter  /) 

1.  The  Ocean,  often  called  the  sea,  covers 
three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surface.     Its  water 
is  salt  and  in  constant  motion.    In  it  live  count- 
less fishes,  and  on  its  surface  very  many  ships 
sail   from    one    country   to    another,   carrying 
people,  provisions,  clothing,  and  various  articles 
for  use  or  ornament. 

Which  of  you  have  ever  seen  an  ocean  ?  A  moun- 
tain ?  A  lake  ?  A  river  ?  An  island  ?  Clouds  ? 
Rain? 

2.  The  ocean  is  useful  to  us  not  only  in  fur- 
nishing fish,  and  as  a  great  highway  for  ships. 
There  are  many  children  who  have  never  seen 
the  ocean,  or  eaten  any  of  its  fish,  or  seen  any- 
thing that  was  brought  in  a  ship.     Lest  such 
children  should  therefore  think  that  the  ocean 
is  of  no  use  to  them,  and  that  it  would  have 
been  better  if  the  earth  were  made  with  pretty 
fields,  farms,  and  gardens  all  over  it,  they  should 
know  that  without   the  ocean  no  child,  man, 
bird,  or  animal  could  live  on  the  earth. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Earth,  ocean,  sea,  fish, 
field,  clouds,  surface,  island,  provisions,  mountain. 


1 4  Rain  ;  its  Origin  and  Uses. 

(The  teacher  may  ask  the  children,  in  turn  or 
together,  to  mention  the  different  articles  of 
food  which  people  require.  If  the  answer  should 
be  bread,  then  ask :) 

3.  What  is  bread  made  of,  and  how  ?     What  is  flour  ? 
Wheat  grou?id  in  the  mill.    Where  is  wheat  obtained  ?     //  is 
raised  on  a  farm. 

(If  others  answer  potatoes,  apples,  milk,  beef, 
pork,  etc.,  ask  questions  about  each.) 

4.  Animals  live  mostly  upon  grass,  vegetables, 
or  grain  of  some  kind,  which  grow  on  the  farms 
and  fields. 

5.  Would  the  grass,  grain,  and  vegetables  grow  without 
rain?     Where  does  the  rain  come 'from?     The  clouds. 
Where  do  the  clouds  come  from  ?     The  ocean.     How  ? 
The  htat  of  the  sun  causes  vapor  to  rise  from  the  ocean,  and 
the  wind  blows  the  vapor  or  clouds  over  the  land,  and  wheti 
they  rise  into  high,  cool  air  they  fall  in  drops  called  rain. 

6.  The  rain  waters  the  fields  and  farms, 
fills  streams,  rivers,  and  lakes,  and  furnishes 
drink  for  men  and  cattle  and  all  creatures  that 
live  on  the  earth.     When  the  vapor  or  moisture 
in  the  air  freezes,  it  falls  in  the  form  of  snow. 
When  the  drops  of  rain  freeze  before  they  reach 
the  ground,  they  fall  in  the  form  of  hail. 

7.  What  rises  from  the  ocean  ?    Vapor.    What  causes 
it  to  rise?      The  sun  and  air.     What  does  vapor  form? 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Flour,  wheat,  farm,  field, 
liver,  lake,  beef,  pork,  apple,  vapor,  freeze,  hail. 


Voyage  of  a  Drop  of  Water.  15 

Clouds.  What  drives  vapor  or  clouds  over  the  land  ? 
The  wind.  What  causes  the  clouds  to  return  and  fall  in 
the  form  of  rain  ?  The  coldness  of  the  air  above  us.  If 
you  should  ascend  far  above  the  earth's  surface  in  a  bal- 
loon or  by  traveling  up  a  high  mountain,  what  differ- 
ence would  you  find  in  the  air  ?  We  would  find  it  cooler 
and  cooler  the  higher  we  go. 

8.  From  this  you  may  readily  understand  how 
a  certain    drop  of  water  may   be  changed  to 
vapor,  rise  from  the  ocean,  be  carried  by  the 
winds  far  away  and  over  the  land,  changed  back 
to  water,  fall  on  the  ground,  sink  down  below 
the  surface,  find  its  way  to  a  spring,  reappear  in 
the  overflow,  run  down  a  hillside,  and  become 
part  of  a  rill,  rivulet,  brook,  or  other  little 
stream.     The  stream  flows  on,  falls  over  steep 
places,   forming  cascades  or  waterfalls, 
turns  mill-wheels,  receives  other  streams, 
becomes  deep  enough  and  wide  enough  to  float 
large  steamboats,  and   at  last  finds  its  way 
into  the  ocean.     Thus  that  little  drop  of  water, 
after  a  long  and  curious  journey,  may  return 
to  the  place  it  started  from. 

9.  Can  people  live  without  water  ?     Does  the  water  you 
drink  come  from  a  spring,  well,  lake,  reservoir,  or  river  ? 
From  what  is   the   well,  spring,  river,  or  lake  supplied  ? 
Rain.       From    what  does   rain  come  ?       From    what    do 
clouds  come  ? 


SPELL   AND    DEFINE— Brook,    wheel,    steep, 
steamboat,  cascade,  balloon,  rivulet. 


1 6  Vapor,  Rain,  Springs,  etc. 

10.  As  the  land  on  the  earth's  surface  is  higher 
than  the  ocean,  you  all  know  that  the  water  of 
the  ocean  could  not  run  up  and  over  the  land. 

1 1.  Now,  how  do  the  waters  which  you  find 
on  the  land,  even  on  very  high  lands,  such  as 
springs,  rivers,  and  lakes,  get  there  ?     They 
are  formed  by  rain  or  melting  snow.    Where 
do  rain  and  snow  come  from  ?    From  vapor 
or  clouds.      Where  do  vapor  and  clouds 
come  from  ?     The  ocean. 

1 2.  All  of  you  who  have  seen  a  kettle  or  pot 
of  water  boiling  have  noticed  that  something 
white,  like   smoke,  rose  from  the  top  of  the 
water.    It  was  not  smoke,  but  vapor.   Vapor  is 
the  water  so  thinned  out  by  heat  as  to  become 
light  enough  to  rise  in  the  air.     Have  you  not 
also  seen  the  inside  of  windows  in  cold  weather 
all  wet  with  drops?     The  vapor  coming  near 
the  cold  window  is  only  changed  back  again  to 
water. 

13.  If  any  of  you  should  hold  a  cold  sub- 
stance, such  as  a  pitcher  filled  with  snow,  or  ice, 
or  cold  water,  over  boiling  water,  you  would  see 
the  vapor  rise,  and  as  soon  as  it  touched  that 
cold  substance  it  would  be  changed  into  drops. 
That  is  the  way  rain  is  formed. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Spring,  kettle,  smoke, 
rain,  vapor,  ice,  snow,  pitcher,,  window,  boiling. 


The  Ocean  ;  what  it  Supplies.  \  7 

14.  Now  look  at  the  chart,  and  you  may  see 
vapor,  which  is  represented  as  rising  from  the 
ocean,  blown  or  carried  by  the  wind  over  the 
land  (following  with  your  pointer),  and  entering 
air  that  is  cooled  by  these  cold  mountains. 
As  cool  air  cannot  hold  as  much  vapor  or  mois- 
ture as  warm,  dry  air,  some  of  the  moisture  falls 
in  the  form  of  rain.     That  which  falls  on  the 
land  waters  the  fields  and  farms,  and   fills 
the  streams  and  lakes. 

One  after  another  will  now  point  to  the  ocean,  the  vapor, 
the  clouds,  the  rain,  streams  and  lakes. 

15.  The  ocean,  then,  supplies  or  fills  all  the 
lakes,  ponds,  rivers,  and  streams ;  every  drop  of 
water  on  the  surface  or  under  the  surface  of  the 
land,  on  the  mountain  top  or  in  the  deepest 
valleys  ;  all  the  water  of  the  wells  and  springs  ; 
all  the  moisture  which  floats  in  the  air ;  and  all 
rain,  snow,  hail,  or  dew. 

Is  the  water  of  the  ocean  salt  or  fresh  ?  Salt.  Is  the 
water  of  rain,  lakes,  rivers,  and  snow  salt  or  fresh  ? 
Fresh. 

If  these  are  all  supplied  from  the  salt  ocean,  why  are  they 
fresh  ?  Because  when  vapor  rises  from  the  ocean,  the  salt,  too 
heavy  to  rise,  remains  behind. 

From  what  besides  the  ocean  does  vapor  rise  ?  From 
lakes,  rivers,  ponds,  and  wet  ground. 

Does  vapor  rise  from  a  cup  of  water  ?     //  does. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Well,  lake,  snow,  valley. 


1 8  Evaporation  and  Condensation. 

1 6.  If  you  should  boil  a  kettle  of  salt  waterv 
the  vapor  passing  off  would  be  fresh.  This  you 
may  prove  by  conducting  the  vapor  through  a 
tube  or  pipe  cold  enough  to  condense  or  change 
the  vapor  back  again  to  water ;  this  water  will 
be  fresh. 

(The  teacher  may  now  draw  on  the  black- 
board this  picture,  of  a  size  sufficiently  large  to 
be  seen  by  the  whole  class ;  or,  the  drawings 
which  enter  into  a  certain  day's  lesson  may  be 
previously  prepared  on  the  blackboard.) 


Drawing  for  the  blackboard  explaining  evaporation  and  con- 
densation; also,  how  fresh  water  maybe  procured  from  salt 
water,  by  conducting  vapor  through  a  pipe  that  is  kept  cold. 

17.  If  you  were  at  sea  and  without  drinking-water,  how 
could  you  obtain  it  ?  By  boiling  the  salt  water  in  a  kettle 
and  conducting  the  vapor  into  a  cold  pitcher  or  bowl,  or 
through  a  pipe  kept  constantly  cold.  What  becomes  of  the 
salt  in  the  process  of  evaporation  ?  //  remains  behind  in 
the  kettle. 

SI  ELL  AND  DEFINE— Tube,  boil,  salt,  kettle. 


The  Five  Oceans. 


18.  Suppose  that  the  salt  should  rise  from  the  ocean  with 
the  vapor ;  what  would  the  rain  be,  fresh  or  salt  ?  If  rain 
were  salt,  what  effect  would  it  have  on  our  grass,  trees, 
grain,  and  flowers  ? 

19.  The  changing  of  water  into  vapor  is  called 
evaporation.  The  changing  of  vapor  into  water 
is  called  condensation.  Look  at  the  chart  again, 
and  see  the  vapor  rising  from  the  salt  water  of 
the  ocean  and  falling  on  the  land  far  away  as 
pure,  fresh  water. 

The  teacher  may  here  write  on  the  black- 
board the  above  as  a  Topical  Diagram, 


Man, 

Animals, 

Trees, 

Grass, 

Grain, 

Vegetables, 


require 


The  Ocean. 

fresh 
water 

which 
depends    • 
on 

Vapor. 
Clouds. 
Rain  or 

Snow. 

(Salt  springs  and  the  manufacture  of  salt  by 
evaporation  here  indicated  will  be  treated  in  an- 
other lesson.) 

20.  The  words  ocean  and  sea  are  often  used 
to  refer  to  the  whole  body  of  salt  water  on  the 
earth  ;  which  may  be  considered  as  divided  into 
five  parts,  also  called  oceans.  There  are  five 
oceans.  I  shall  point  on  the  map  of  the  world, 
and  all  (or  each  in  turn)  will  repeat  each  name 
after  me— Pacific  Ocean,  Atlantic  Ocean, 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Bowl,  pitcher,  vapor, 
evaporation,  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Arctic,  Antarctic, 
Indian,  vegetables,  grain,, flowers,  condensation. 


2O       The  Five  Grand  Divisions  of  Land. 

Indian  Ocean,  Arctic  Ocean,  Antarctic 
Ocean.  Now  I  shall  call  their  names,  and 
some  of  you  may  point  to  them  as  I  mention 
them.  How  many  oceans  are  there?  Name 
one,  another,  another,  etc.  Look  at  the  map  and 
tell  which  is  the  largest.  What  does  Pacific 
mean  ?  Mild.  It  is  not  so  rough  and  stormy 
as  the  other  oceans. 

21.  Now  repeat  after  me  the  Grand  Divisions 
of  the  land  while  I  point  to  them — North 
America,  where  we  live ;  South  America, 
where  South  Americans  live ;  Europe,  where 
Europeans,  or  white  people,  live  ;  Asia,  where 
Asiatics,  or  yellow  people,  live;  and  Africa, 
where  Africans  live.  You  point  as  I  call  their 
names.  As  I  point  you  mention  their  names. 
(The  white  people  born  in  America  are  the 
descendants  of  Europeans,  and  the  colored 
people  born  in  America  are  the  descendants 
of  Africans.) 

(Long  before  white  men  came  to  America 
from  Europe,  which  was  nearly  400  years  agot 
this  part  of  the  world,  called  North  America, 
was  inhabited  by  a  copper-colored  race  of  people, 
who  lived  mostly  by  hunting  and  fishing.  Their 
descendants  in  the  country  now  live  much  in 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— North,  South,  America, 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  buffalo,  descendants. 


Sea  Voyages.  21 

the  same  way,  in  the  territories.  Look  at 
the  chart,  and  you  will  see  a  picture  of  Indians 
hunting  buffaloes.  I  may  tell  you  more  about 
the  Indians,  and  their  curious  way  of  living,  in 
another  lesson.) 

22.  Which  is  the  largest  of  these  divisions?  The  small-* 
est  ?  In  which  do  we  live  ?  What  are  we  called  ?  Ame- 
ricans. Look  at  the  map  and  tell  what  three  oceans  sur- 
round North  America.  Which  of  them  would  you  cross 
in  sailing  to  Europe  ?  .  Why  do  steamships  and  other 
vessels  cross  the  ocean  ?  To  carry  passengers,  also  arti- 
cles which  are  grown  or  manufactured  here. 

Do  those  vessels  return  empty  ?  They  bring  back  articles 
which  are  raised  or  made  in  Europe,  Asia,  or  Africa  ;  they 
bring  passengers  also. 

Can  you  name  some  things  which  are  sent  from  this 
country  across  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?  Flour,  wheat,  cotton, 
provisions,  oil,  and  tobacco. 

Can  you  mention  some  articles  we  receive  from  Europe  ? 
Materials  for  making  dresses  and  all  kinds  of  cloths,  besides 
knives  and  toys. 

What  do  ships  from  South  America  bring  to  this  coun- 
try ?  Coffee  and  India-rubber. 

What  do  we  get  from  China  and  Japan  ?  Tea,  fans, 
and  many  fancy  articles. 

How  long  does  it  take  steamships  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
from  this  country  to  Europe  ?  About  ten  days. 

Did  you  ever  see  a  steamship  ?  What  is  the  difference 
between  a  steamship  and  a  sailing  vessel  ? 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE  Toy,  tea,  coffee,  oil, 
wheat,  cotton,  knives,  tobacco,  provisions,  pas- 
sengers, India-rubber,  steamship,  sailing,  knives. 


22  Dangers  on  the  Ocean. 

(Show  the  difference  on  the  chart.) 

23.  If  you  should  cross  the  ocean,  you  would 
see  nothing  about  your  ship  but  the  water  and 
the  sky ;  and,  as  the  vessel  would  cut  through 
the  great   rolling  waves,  it  would  go  up  and 
down  like  a  rocking-chair.     In  a  storm,  how- 
ever, the  waves  rise  terribly  high  and  beat  over; 
the  ship,  which  tumbles  and  plunges  and  rolls 
violently,  sometimes  nearly  covered  over  with 
the  waves.    Then  the  passengers  must  be  down- 
stairs or  they  would  be  washed  overboard. 

24.  Are  there  any  other  dangers   to  be  feared  at  sea  ? 
Dangers  from  one  ship  running  into  another  at  night  or 
against  an  iceberg,  or  from  the  ship  taking  fire. 

What  is  an  iceberg  ?  A  greafmass  of  floating  ice  reaching 
far  above  and  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  Icebergs 
come  from  the  cold  regions  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  and 
northern  parts  of  North  America. 

25.  Do  men  ever  sail  into  those  cold,  dangerous  regions, 
where  they  are  constantly  surrounded  by  ice  and  icebergs  ? 
They  do.     Why  ?     To  find  a  new  passage  across  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  or  to  reach  the  most  northerly  part  of  the  earth,  called 
the  North  Pole. 

26.  What  dangers  attend  these  voyages  ?      Some  ships 
have  been  crushed  by  fields  of  ice  or  by  icebergs,  and  the  crews 
perished  from  hunger  and  cold.     Mention  a  celebrated  Eng- 
lish  explorer   who  was  lost   in   the  Arctic   regions?     Sir 
John  Franklin. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Waves,  region,  hunger, 
iceberg,  floating,  northern,  surface,  danger,  over- 
board, perished,  explorer,  dangerous,  English. 


Whales — How  Captured.  23 

In  1845,  he  left  England  with  two  ships  and  fine  crews, 
to  reach  Asia  by  way  of  Baffin  Bay  and  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
(Here  point  out  the  course  on  the  map  or  globe.)  Him- 
self, his  officers  and  crew  of  over  130  men,  all  perished. 

27.  How  do  natives  and  explorers  in  the  Arctic  regions 
travel  over  the  ice  and  snow  ?     In  sledges  drawn  by  dogs. 

28.  What  huge  animals  (often,  but  improperly,  called  fish) 
are  captured  in  the  water  of  the  cold  regions  ?      Whales. 
You  can  know  them  far  off  by  their  two  great  fountains  or 
streams  of  water  which  they  blow  from  their  nostrils. 

29.  To    capture   whales   men   spend    many 
months  on  long,  cold  voyages,  and  we  frequently 
hear  of  ships  being  crushed  by  icebergs  or  float- 
ing fields  of  ice,  and  the  crews  frozen  or  starved 
to  death.    All  this  for  what  purpose  ?     To  get 
oil  and  whalebone  from  the  whale.     When  the 
whalemen  see  a  whale  they  hurry  out  of  their 
ship  and  row  in  an  open  boat  towards  him,  and 
when   near  enough,  one  of  the  men  throws  a 
kind  of  dart  or  spear,  called  a  harpoon,  with  all 
his  might  into  the  whale.     The  huge  creature 
becomes  furious,  and  the  men  must  look  sharp 
to  keep  out  of  his  way  and  to  let  out  the  long 
rope   which  is   fastened    to   the    harpoon,   else 
their  boat  may  be  dashed  to  pieces  or  all  pulled 
far  under  the  water  in  an  instant. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Crew,  officer,  Baffin, 
natives,  sledges,  captured,  whales,  whalebone, 
nostrils,  voyage,  starved,  harpoon,  England. 


24  Whalebone — Oil. 

30.  After  a  while  the  whale  dies  and  floats  at 
the  top  of  the  water.     Then  the  men  jump  on 
him  and  cut  out  great  quantities  of  the  fat  which 
is  found  right  under  the  surface  of  the  skin. 
They   afterwards   boil    the  fat,  called  blubber, 
and  make  it  into  oil,  which  they  take  home  in 
barrels. 

31.  The  whalebone,  which  is  obtained  fiom 
the  inside  of  the  upper  jaw,  is  colored  and  pre- 
pared for  use.     For  what  is  whalebone  useful  ? 
Oil  ?   The  whale  is  an  animal  which  lives  always 
in  the  water,  and  is  the    largest  of  all  animals 
111  draw  a  picture  of  one  on  the  blackboard. 


A  Whale.    (Make  the  drawing:  on  the  blackboard  3  feet  in  lengrth 
by  7  inches  in  greatest  width.) 

How  long  do  you  think  a  whale  is  ?  The  larger 
ones  are  about  20  to  30  yards  long  and  10  yards 
around  the  body.  (Here  show  these  distances 
by  comparing  with  your  school-house,  room,  or 
some  other  object.) 

SPELL  AND   DEFINE— Oil,  whale,  whalebone, 
animal,  blubber,  barrels,  twenty,  thirty,  yard,  float 


The  Seal.  25 

32.  There  are  other  animals  living  in  or  near 
the  water,  which  are  captured  in  very  large 
numbers  every  year  in  the  cold  regions.  Can 
you  name  them  ?  Seals.  For  what  are  seals 
captured  ?  Their  fur. 


Seal,  6  feet  in  length.  Porpoise.  6  to  8  feet  in  length. 

Shark,  12  feet  in  length. 

Make  blackboard  drawing-  of  seal  and  porpoise,  each  2  feet  long- 
by  6  inches  wide :  of  shark,  4  feet  long  by  10  inches  wide. 
The  shark  is  twice  as  long  as  the  seal,  and  the  whale  is  five 
times  as  long  as  the  shark. 

33.  Here  is  drawn  (or  I  shall  draw)  on  the 
blackboard  a  picture  of  a  seal.  This  animal  is 
about  two  yards  long.  It  has  two  fore  paws, 
with  which  it  paddles  in  the  water  or  pulls  itself 
along  on  the  ice  or  the  shore.  Its  hinder  limbs 
serve  only  to  steer  and  scull  with.  Its  head 
resembles  that  of  a  dog. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Captured,  fur,  paddles, 
ice,  porpoise,  shark,  two,  yard,  fore. 


26  The  Seal — Its  Uses. 

34.  In  Greenland,  where  it  is  very  cold, 
many  of  the  people  depend  upon  the  seal  for 
almost  everything :  its  flesh  they  use  for  food, 
of  its  skin  they  make  their  clothing,  tents,  and 
boats,  and  its  fat  furnishes  them  with  oil  for  fuel 
and  lamplight. 

35.  The  seal  is  found  on  coasts  and  islands  in 
many  parts  of  the  world,  but  especially  in  the 
cold  regions.    Around  Alaska,  Greenland, 
and   Newfoundland  thousands  are  captured 
every  year. 

36.  The  different  species  of  the  seal  include 
the  sea-lion,  sea-elephant,  sea-leopard,  sea-bear, 
and  the  walrus.     The  sea-elephant  is  about  10 
yards  in  length. 

37.  The  seal  is  amphibious,  because  it  can  live  in  water  or 
on  land ;  it  is  a  quadruped,  because  it  has  four  paws  or  legs  ; 
like  the  whale,  it  is  carnivorous,  because  it  eats  fish  and 
the  flesh  of  animals;  it  is  gregarious,  because  it  lives  with 
others,  in  herds;  it  is  migratory,  because  it  moves  from  one 
part  of  the  ocean  to  another;  and  is  a  mammal,  because  it 
suckles  its  young. 

Seals,  when  in  the  water,  must  come  to  the  surface  at 
least  every  half  hour  to  breathe  ;  whales,  about  every 
hour. 

Alaska  was  purchased  from  Russia  by  the  United  States 
for  seven  millions  of  dollars.  It  is  noted  for  seals  and  fish. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Seal,  paw,  limbs,  boats, 
flesh,  steer,  scull,  tent,  fuel,  coast,  island,  clothing, 
paddle,  sea-lion,  sea-elephant,  thousand,  million. 


Porpoise — Cod — Mackerel — Herring.     2  7 

Now  I  shall  show  you  a  picture  of  a  porpoise. 

38.  The  porpoise  is  an  animal  very  much  like 
the  seal,  but  it  has  not  fur  like  the  seal.  In  size, 
each  resembles  a  large  hog.  Leather  is  made  of 
its  skin,  and  oil  of  its  fat. 


Trout.  Pike. 

Codfish.  Cuttle-fish. 

39.  Can  you  mention  some  kinds  of  fish  that 
are  caught  in  salt  water  and  are  used  for  food  ? 
Cod,  mackerel,  herring.  These  are  caught  in 
immense  numbers  near  the  coasts,  and,  when 
salted  and  cured,  they  are  sent  to  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Famous  fishing  grounds  are  off  the 
coasts  of  Maine,  Massachusetts,  Labra- 
dor, Nova  Scotia,  and  Newfoundland, 
which  I  now  point  out  on  the  map.  Is  New- 
foundland surrounded  by  water?  What  is  it, 
therefore?  An  Island.  By  what  water  is  it 
surrounded?  Mention  other  kinds  of  fishes. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Porpoise,   leather,   cod, 
mackerel,  herring,  Maine,  New'foundland. 


28  Fisheries. 

40.  Here    (pointing   to   the   map,   south    of 
Newfoundland)    are    shoals   or   shallow  places, 
called  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  where  dur- 
ing several    months  in  the  year  you  may  see 
hundreds  of  boats,  and  thousands  of  men  of  dif- 
ferent nations,  engaged  in  fishing. 

41.  Here  is  a  picture  of  a  codfish  (drawing 
or  showing  it)  of  the  ordinary  size,  two  feet  in 
length.     Some  are  much  larger.     It  is  cured  by 
being  salted  and  dried. 

42.  This  is  a  drawing  of  a  mackerel,  which 
is  about   15  inches  in  length.     It  is  caught  by 
hook  and  line,  and  by  a  seine  (pronounced  seen) 
or  net.     It  is  salted  in  barrels. 

43.  Here  is  a  drawing  of  a  larger  fish  called 
halibut,   which    measures   from  3  to   6  feet  in 
length.     (See  p.  30.)     This  is  a  drawing  of  one, 
three  feet   in  length  and  one  in  width.     Curi- 
ously, both  its  eyes  are  on  the  same  side  of  its 
head. 

44.  A  very  fine  fish  which  comes  from  the 
south  in  the  spring,  entering  the  rivers  and  in- 
lets of  the  State's  along  the  Atlantic  Coast, 
is  the  shad.    Those  of  the  Delaware,  Hud- 
son, and  Connecticut  rivers  are  celebrated. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Shallow,  hundred,  thou- 
sand, salted,  dried,  caught,  seine,  halibut,  eyes, 
coast,  inlets,  Delaware,  Hudson,  Connecticut. 


Fresh-water  Fish. 


29 


45.  You  may  have  seen  enclosed  in  tin  boxes 
and  packed  in  olive  oil  a  great  many  very  small 
fishes.     Do  you  know  their  name?     Sardines. 
They  are    caught    in    large    quantities   in    the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea. 

46.  All  the  fish  which  we  have  mentioned  are 
salt-water  fish.     I  shall  now  show  you  a  picture 
of  some  fresh-water  fish  which  men  and  boys  de- 
light to  catch,  the  pike  and  trout  (see  page  27). 

47.  This  is  a  pike,  2  feet  long  and  3  inches 
wide ;  some  are  smaller  and  others  larger.    They 
are  caught  in  streams  and  lakes,  and  are  deli- 
cious for  the  table. 

48.  Another  favorite  fresh-water  fish   is  the 
trout  (here  is  a  drawing  of  one  about  16  inches 
in  length).     Trout  are  caught  by  hook  and  line 
in  the  streams  of  the  New  England,  Middle, 
and  Western  States,  and  Canada. 

They  are  usually  found  in  swiftly-running 
streams,  swimming  against  the  current. 

49.  Did  you  ever  see  any  fresh-water  fish  caught? 
What  kind?  Where?  Into  what  does  that  stream  or 
lake  empty  ?  Did  you  ever  see  a  salt-water  fish  caught  ? 
How  ?  Where  ? 

Name  the  different  kinds  of  fishes  you  have  ever  seen. 
What  is  the  most  remarkable  fish  you  have  ever  seen  ? 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Boxes,  olives,  sardines, 
inch,  trout,  pike,  current,  swimming. 


3O  Flying-fish — Sword-fish.  • 


Halibut.  Flyingr-fish. 

Sword-fish.  Mackerel. 

50.  Did  you  ever  see  a  flying-fish  ?    I'll  show 
you  a  picture  of  one  on  the  blackboard,  about 
ten   inches  in  length.     They  are  found  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  warm  parts  of  the  ocean.     Their  long  fins 
enable  them  to  fly  out  of  the  water  as  high  as 
the  decks  of  ships,  on  which  they  sometimes 
fall. 

51.  Another  singular  fish  is  the  sword-fish,  12 
to  20  feet  in  length.     (Here  is  a  drawing  of  a 
very  small  one  three  feet  long.) 

It  is  so  fierce,  and  so  swift  in  motion,  that  it 
drives  its  sword,  a  long,  sharp,  bony  substance, 
into  a  fish  which  it  wishes  to  capture.  It  has 
been  known  to  attack  a  ship  and  bury  its  wea- 
pon deep  in  the  timbers. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Flying-fish,  sword-fish, 
Mediterranean,  Mexico,  weaoon.  timbers,  deck. 


Cuttle-fish — Oysters,  Crabs,  etc.          31 

The    sword-fish   is  found   in   the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

(Whenever  the  blackboard  will  admit  of  it,  the  drawings 
should  be  made  full  size.) 

52.  Here  is  still  another  very  curious  fish.    It 
is  a  cuttle-fish,  which  has  eight  long  arms  for 
seizing  other  creatures  which   it   captures   for 
food.     When  pursued,  it  discolors  the  water  all 
about  it  with  an  inky  substance,  which  enables 
it  to  conceal  itself  and  escape  from  its  enemy. 
(See  p.  27.) 

53.  Do  fishes  breathe  air  ?    They  do.     Do  they  come  to 
the  surface  of  the  water  for  air,  as  whales,  seals,  and  por- 
poises  do  ?     They  do  not.     Where  do   they  find  air  to 
breathe  ?     In  the  water.     Does  all  water  contain  air  ?     It 
does.     Fishes  have  gills ;    animals,  lungs  to  breathe  with. 
The  blood  of  fishes  is  cold,  while  that  of  animals  is  warm. 

54.  There  is  a  kind  of  fish  caught  in  salt 
water  called  shell-fish.     Can  you  name  some  of 
this  kind  ?     Oysters,  clams,  crabs,  and  lobsters. 
These  are  also  found  near  shore  in  great  quan- 
tities and  sold  almost  everywhere,  either  fresh  or 
preserved.     Oysters  are  usually  found  adhering 
to  rocks  or  in  the  sand  in  salt  water. 

Do  any  of  you  know  what  kind  of  a  jewel,  worn  exten- 
sively by  ladies,  is  found  in  some  oysters  ?     The  pearl. 


SPELL  AND  DEFINE— Shell-fish,  cuttle-fish, 
captures,  pursue,  conceal,  escape,  enemy,  breathe, 
crab,  oyster,  lobster,  lungs. 


3  2  Coral — Sponge. 

55.  There  are  other  pretty  ornaments  made 
from  the  skeletons  or  kind  of  bony  substance 
of  small  creatures  which  have  died  in  the  ocean 
in  such   large  numbers   as  gradually  to    form 
islands.     What  is  that  substance  ?     Coral. 

56.  There  is  another  substance,  not  ornamental 
like  the  pearl  or  coral,  but  very  useful.     It  looks 
like  a  sea  plant,  but  is  also  the  skeletons  of  what 
were  once  living  creatures.      It  is  very  soft,  and 
it  adheres   to   rocks,  shells,  etc.,  under   water. 
Mention  it  ?     Sponge. 

57.  For  what  is  sponge  useful?     (Teachers  should  show 
the  class  a  piece  of  sponge,  coral,  whalebone.) 

58.  I  shall  now  draw  on  the  blackboard  the 
shape  of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 


1,  the  shore;  2,  the  surface  or  level  of  the  ocean;  3,  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean. 

How  deep  do  you  think  the  ocean  is  ?  You  ?  and 
you?  etc.  The  highest  trees  (those  in  California)  and 
church  steeples  in  this  country  are  about  300  feet  high. 
How  many  of  these,  one  on  top  of  another,  would  reach 
from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  to  the  top  or  surface  ?  Forty. 


SPELL    AND    DEFINE— Coral,   sponge,    pearl, 
shells,  skeleton,  ornaments,  gradually,  steeple. 


Pearls — Coral — Divers.  33 

59.  Pearls  are  obtained  by  divers.     Divers  do 
not  always  go  down  head  first.     Sometimes  one 
is  lowered  by  a  rope,  on  the  end  of  which  a  stone 
is  fastened  to  help  him  to  sink.     With  his  feet 
upon  this  stone  and  one  hand  holding  on  to 
the  rope,  the  diver  collects  as  many  of  the  pearl- 
oysters  as  he  can  in  a  minute  or  half-minute, 
when  he  must  ascend  to  breathe. 

60.  Pearls  are  beautiful  and  expensive,  especially  those 
as  large  as  peas  and  larger.     Philip   II.,  King  of  Spain, 
had  one  which  was  valued  at  $75,000,  and  it  is  said   that 
those  in  the  ear-drops  of  Cleopatra,  a  celebrated  Queen  of 
Egypt,  were  valued  at  $400,000. 

61.  Among  the  most  famous  pearl  fisheries  are  those 
near  Ceylon  and  the  east  coast  of  Hindoostan.     Pearls 
have  been  found  also  near  Japan,  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
in  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Bay  of  Panama. 

Mother-of-pearl  is  the  inside  lining  of  the  shells.  It  is 
extensively  used  for  making  buttons,  knife-handles,  and  for 
ornamenting  boxes,  furniture,  etc. 

62.  Coral  is  also  obtained  by  divers  in  vari- 
ous parts  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea.     The 
finest  is  of  a  rose-pink  color,  and  is  found  chief- 
ly near  the  coasts  of  Italy. 

63.  A  flourishing  business  has  long  been  carried  on   in 
the  manufacture  and  sale  of  coral  ornaments  in   the   cities 
of  Naples,  Leghorn',  and   Gen'oa. 

These  divers  for  pearls  and  corals,  when  in  the  water, 
often  see  curious  and  frightful  creatures,  some  of  which 
are  very  dangerous  (see  p.  91). 


Review —  Uses  of  tke  Ocean. 


The  Earth's  Surface— Land  and  Water. 

REVIEW. 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  earth  ?     Round  like  a  ball. 

What  is  its  size  ?  The  distance  around  it  is  about 
-5,000  miles. 

Of  what  is  the  earth's  surface  mostly  composed  ?    Water. 

Is  the  water  of  the  ocean  salt  or  fresh  ?     Salt. 

Mention  some  of  its  benefits  or  uses  to  people  ? 

People  sail  on  it  and  get  fish  from  it.     It  supplies  rain. 

In  what  way  does  it  supply  rain  ? 

The  heat  of  the  sun  changes  some  of  it  into  vapor ;  the 
air  lifts  the  vapor ,  the  winds  blow  the  vapor  or  clouds  over 
the  land,  and  cool  air  changes-  it  back  into  drops  of  water. 


Review — Different  Kinds  of  People.      35 

Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  rain  ? 

Rain  waters  the  fields  and  gardens,  forms  springs  and 
rivers  and  lakes,  fills  wells  and  cisterns,  and  supplies  all  the 
fresh  water  of  the  world. 

What  if  the  earth's  surface  were  all  land  ? 

Ihen  there  would  be  no  rain,  no  rivers,  no  grass,  no 
trees,  no  food,  no  birds,  no  animals,  no  people. 

The  sea  or  whole  body  of  water  on  the  earth  is 
divided  into  how  many  oceans  ? 

Five :  the  Pacific,  Atlantic,  Indian,  Arctic,  and  Antarctic 
Oceans. 

Have  you  ever  seen  any  of  these  oceans  ? 

As  rain  comes  from  the  salt  ocean,  why  is  it  fresh  ? 

.Because  salt  is  heavier  than  air ;  it  remains  behind  in 
the  ocean. 

You  have  mentioned  the  five 
great  bodies  of  water ;  now  men- 
tion the  great  bodies  of  land. 

North  America,  South  America , 
Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia. 

In  which  of  them  do  we  live  ? 

North  America. 

Do  the  inhabitants  of  these  grand 
divisions  of  land  look  alike  ?  Caucasian,  or  white. 

They  do  not ;  some  are  white, 
some  black,  some  dark  red,  some  dark 
yellow,  and  some  brown. 

Who  are  the  white  people  of  the 
earth  ? 

Europeans  and  their  descendants. 

Who  are  the  black  people  ? 

The  inhabitants  of  Africa  and 
their  descendants  (except  those  of 
the  northern  and  northeastern  * 

countries,   who    are   light  brown).  African  (black). 


3  6  Review —  Countries  a nd  People. 


Indian  (copper-colored). 


Chinaman  (dark  yellow). 


Who  are  the  red  or  copper-colored  people  ? 

The  Indians  of  America. 

Who  are  the  dark  yellow  people  ? 

The  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  other  inhabitants  of  Asia. 

Who  are  the  brown  people  ? 

The  inhabitants  of  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

In  what  other  respects  do  people 
differ  ? 

In  their  dress,  occupations,  and 
laws. 

Into  what  are  North  America, 
South  America,  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa  divided  ? 

Countries. 

Mention  some  of  the  countries  in 
North  America.  Malay  (brown). 

The  United  States,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

Mention  some  of  the  countries  in  South  America, 

Brazil,  Peru,  and  Chili. 

Mention  some  countries  in  Europe. 

England,  Germany,  Russia,  France,  and  Italy. 

Mention  some  countries  in  Asia. 

China,  Japan,  Persia,  and  Arabia. 

Mention  some  countries  in  Africa. 

Egypt,  Morocco,  Liberia,  and  Guinea. 


Review — People,  their  Food,  etc.          3  7 

Which  are  the  hottest  countries  in  the  world  ? 

Arabia,  Guinea,  Brazil,  and  all  other  countries  crossed 
by  the  Equator.  (See  map  of  the  world.) 

Which  are  the  coldest  countries  in 
the  world  ? 

Russia,  Greenland,  and  all  other 
places  around  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
Oceans, 

What  do  the  people  in  the  coldest 
parts  of  the  earth  wear  constantly  ? 

Furs  or  skins  of  animals. 

What  kinds  of  animals  are  found  in 
the  cold  regions  ? 

Bears,  seals,  and  reindeer.  An  Inhabitant  of  th» 

What  is   the    principal   food    of  the       Cold  Regrion. 
people  in  the  hot  countries  ?      Vegetables  and  fruits. 

What  do  the  people  of  the  Arctic  regions  eat  ? 

The  flesh  and  fat  of  animals;  also  fish. 

Can  you  tell  me  how  a  whale  is  caught  ?  (p.  23).  Wha' 
is  it  useful  for?  What  is  its  size  ?  How  large  is  a  seal  7 
(p.  25).  Is  it  a  fish,  or  an  animal  ?  Why  are  they  cap- 
tured ?  (p.  26).  Point  out  on  the  map  the  places  wher« 
seals  are  mostly  captured. 

What  fish  is  so  savage  as  to  be  called  "  man-eater"? 
The  shark.  How  long  is  it?  (p.  25). 

Mention  some  of  the  kinds  of  salt-water  fish  which  are 
used  for  food  (p.  2)).  What  parts  of  the  North  Ameri- 
can coast  are  famous  for  cod,  mackerel,  and  herring  ? 
What  is  there  curious  about  the  eyes  of  the  halibut? 
Where  is  the  shad  mostly  caught?  (p.  28).  When? 
Sardines?  (p.  29).  Mention  some  fresh-water  fish.  What 
can  you  say  about  the  flying-fish?  (p.  30).  The  sword- 
fish  ?  The  cuttle-fish  ?  (p.  31).  Shell-fish  ?  Coral  ?  (p. 
32).  Pearls?  (p.  33). 


Map  of  Vicinity. 


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ta 

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Movements  in  the  Ocean. 


Blackboard  Drawing:  of  the  Gulf  Stream  (warm)  and  Arctic  Cur- 
rent (cold).  Draw'  a  frame  24  inches  from  north  to  south,  and 
26  inches  from  east  to  west.  On  it  mark  points  where  the 
outlines  of  the  continents  touch  it,  making1  every  line  and 
distance  exactly  eig-ht  times  as  long-  as  in  the  diagram.  The 
arrows  show  the  directions  in  which  the  currents  flow.  The 
current  in  dotted  lines  is  cold. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OCEAN  CURRENTS— THE  GULF  STREAM. 

1.  The  waters  of  the  oceans  are  in  constant 
motion,  those  of  warm  parts  of  the  earth  flow- 
ing toward  the  cold  regions,  and  those  from  the 
cold  parts  flowing  toward  the  hot  regions. 

2.  The  coldest  parts  of  the  earth  are  the  most 


Warm  and  Cold  C^lrrenls.  43 

northern  and  southern  [the  teacher  pointing  to 
them  on  a  globe  or  map],  and  the  hottest  parts 
are  midway  between  them,  or  on  each  side  of  a 
great  circle  called  the  Equator. 

3.  In   the   oceans  are  great  streams  or  cur 
rents  which  flow  like  rivers.     The  warm  stream 
is  called  the  Equatorial  Current,  and  the  cold 
streams  are  called  Arctic  and  Antarctic  Currents. 

4.  One  of  the  principal  branches  of  the  Equa- 
torial Current  is  called  the  Gulf  Stream,  which, 
as  you  may  see  in  the  drawing,  issues  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico. 

5.  Of  course  it  is  only  that  part  of  the  great  Equatorial 
Current  which    is  turned  northwest  by  the  eastern  part  or 
elbow  of  South  America,  entering  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
between   Cuba  and    Yucatan,  and  leaving   it   between 
Cuba  and  Florida. 

6.  This  Gulf  Stream,  flowing  in  a  northeast 
direction    across   the   Atlantic,   is,   therefore,   a 
stream    of  warm    water   rushing   through    and 
over  the  cold  waters  of  that  part  of  the  ocean. 

7.  The    Gulf    Stream    and   winds   from    the 
southwest   carry  heat  all  the  way  to  the  west 
coast  of  Europe,  keeping  the  fields  of  Eng- 
land  and    Ireland   fresh  and  green  even  in 
winter,    and   protecting  those    countries    from 
a  climate  similar  to  that  of  Labrador,  where 
for  five  or  six  months  in  the  year  the  waters 
are  frozen  and  the  ground  is  all  covered  over 


44  Effects  of  the  Currents. 

with  snow.     Observe  that  Labrador  is  no  fur^ 
ther  from  the  Equator  than  are  those  countries. 

8.  The  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream  moderate 
the  winters  also  of  Norway  and  Iceland. 

9.  You  can  readily  see  that   a  ship  can  sail  from  the 
United  States  to  Europe  with  the  Gulf  Stream  in  a 
shorter  time   than  it  can  from    Europe    to    this   country, 
against  the  stream. 

10.  The  chief  causes  of  these  ocean  currents  are  the 
heat  of  the  &un  and    the   revolution   of  the  earth  on  its 
axis.     The  ^finds  also  have  an  effect  on  them. 

1 1.  There  are  other  currents  in  the    ocean ; 
one  in  the  North  Pacific  is  similar  to  the  Gulf 
Stream  of  the  Atlantic.     It  carries  warmth -and 
fertility  to  the  shores  of  California,  Oregon, 
and  Washington  Territory. 

12.  Which  are  the  coldest  oceans?     The  Arctic  and 
Antarctic. 

What  advantage  is  there  in  these  movements  of  the 
waters  of  the  ocean  ?  They  lessen  the  heat  of  the  hottest 
parts  of  the  earth  and  the  cold  of  the  coldest  parts. 

Of  what  benefit  is  the  Gulf  Stream  to  the  countries  of 
Western  Europe  ?  //  tempers  their  winters,  and  its  vapors 
supply  theif  rains. 

How  are  its  vapors  conveyed  to  those  countries  ?  By 
the  westerly  winds.  (See pages  16,  17,  and  18.) 

What  supplies  the  rains  of  California,  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton Territory,  and  Alaska  ?  Vapors  from  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Where  do  these  warm  streams  come  from  ?  From  the 
hottest  or  Equatorial  parts  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Where  do  the  cold  streams  come  from  ?  From  the  coldest 
or  Polar  Regions. 


Sk  ips — Sli  tpya  rds. 


45 


A  Ship-Launch. 


CHAPTER    IV. 
SHIPS,   SHIP-BUILDING,  DOCKS,  ETC. 

1.  On  the  sea-coast  or  on  the  bank  of  a  river 
you  will  sometimes  find  a  ship-yard,  where  ships 
are  built.     In  the  chart  a  ship-yard  appears  at 
the  mouth  of  the  large  river,  on  its  left  bank. 

2.  To  build  a  ship,  men  lay  a  great,  long  tim- 
ber called  the  keel,  on  an  inclined  track  or  plat- 
form.    To  this  keel  are  fastened   the  ribs,  or 
curved  timbers,  which   form  the  sides  of  the 
ship.     The  whole  is  supported  and  surrounded 
by  a  great  frame  called  the  stocks. 


46  Steamships — A  Ship-Launch. 

3.  The   ribs   are   then    covered    with    thick 
planks,  and  those  planks  which  are  below  the 
water-line  are  covered  with  plates  or  sheets  of 
copper  or  other  metal. 

4.  Steamships  are  now  built  wholly  of  iron 
and  steel.     The  plates,  instead   of  planks,  are 
secured  by   bolts   and    rivets   passing   through 
their  overlapping  edges.     Iron  ships  can  carry 
larger  cargoes  than  wooden  ships. 

5.  When   the  body   or  hull  of  the  ship  is 
ready  to  be  launched,  long,  slanting  timbers  are 
placed  under  it,  reaching  down  into  the  water. 
These  timbers  or  tracks  are  covered  with  grease 
and  soap,  some  of  the  props  removed,  and  the 
whole  is  made  to  slide  down    into   the  water. 
People  take  great  pleasure  in  witnessing  a  launch. 

6.  After  the  ship  is  launched  it  receives  its 
masts  and  sails,  and  is  finished.     If  intended  for 
a  steamship,  it  is  also  provided  with  engines,  fur- 
naces, smoke-pipes,  and  perhaps  paddle-wheels. 

7.  Instead  of  paddle-wheels,  which  you  may 
see  at  the  sides   of  steamboats,  you   will   find 
that  now  most  steamships  are  driven  by  a  pro- 
peller, or  huge  iron  screw,  at  its  stern,  or  hinder 
part.      When   this   propeller   turns   round   and 
round  very  rapidly,  its  great,  wide  arms  strike 
the  water  in  such  a  way  as  to  push  the  steamer 
ahead  at  the  rate  of  about  fifteen  knots,  or  miles, 
every  hour. 


Parts  of  a  Ship —  Their  Names.         47 


Blackboard  Drawing-.  Names  of  sails,  etc.:  A,  flying-gib;  B, 
jib;  C,  foretop-mast-stay  sail;  D,  fore  top-gallant  sail;  E, 
foretop  sail;  F,  fore-course;  Q,  maintop-gallant  sail;  H, 
maintop  sail;  I,  main-course ;  J,  mizzen -spanker. 

K,  hull  or  body;  L,  keel;  M,  bow;  N,  i udder;  O, bowsprit;  P, 
jib-boom;  Q,  martingale;  B,  life-boat;  S,  buoy. 

a,  Foreroyal  stay;  c,  foretop-gallant  stay ;  d,  foretop-mast  stay; 
e,  maintop-gallant  stay;  f,  maintop-mast  stay ;  h,  main  stay; 
i,  fore  top -gallant  mast ;  j,  maintop-gallant  mast ;  k,  mizzen- 
top  mast. 


8.  Here  is  a  ship  (pointing  to  one   on  the 
chart).     See  with    what   ease  she  moves  upon 
her  way,  her  swelling  sails  urging  her  onward 
with    the    favoring  breeze.      What   wonderful 
progress  men  have  made  from  the  time  when 
the  rude  savage  straddled  his  log  and  floated 
first  along  the  shore ! 

9.  Almost  as  primitive   is   the   large  earthen   jar  used 
by  the  fisherman  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  River.     He 


48 


What  Skips  Carry. 


fishes  as  he  floats,  and  puts  the  fish  into  the  jar  that  is  at 
once  his  support  and  his  storehouse.  Other  races  use 
rafts,  bark  canoes,  hollow  logs  called  dug-outs,  and  boats 
of  basket-work  covered  with  skins. 


10.  Then   came    the 
idea   of  a  mast  with  a 
sail  of  skin  or  matting. 
As  soon  as  men  learned 
how    to    make    planks 
they     used     them      to 
make  boats.     These  in- 
creased in   size,  as  did 
their    sails,   until   large 
enough    to    be    called 
sloops   or  schooners  or 
ships,  which   can    carry- 
hundreds    of  men    and 
thousands   of    tons    of 

merchandise  for  thousands  of    miles    across   a 
trackless  ocean. 

1 1.  The  immense  quantities  of  cotton,  corn, 
wheat,  butter,  cheese,  petroleum,  beef,  pork,  and 
other  articles  which  are  being  shipped  to  Eu- 
rope  every   year   bring    great    wealth   to    this 
country. 

1 2.  When  men  discovered  the  power  of  steam, 
they  made  steamboats  and  steamships.    These* 
move  over  the  water  by  means  of  the  power 
of  the  vapor  of  water,  that  we  call  steam. 


A  Chinese  Junk. 


Stea  m — Mack  inery. 


Blackboard  Drawing-.  On  the  right  is  a  furnace,  on  which  is 
the  boiler,  partly  filled  with  water.  Steam  collects  in  the 
curved  top  of  the  boiler,  and  is  let  into  the  cylinder,  first  at  A, 
then  at  B,  then  A,  then  B,  or  one  after  another,  so  as  to  push 
the  piston,  E,  up  and  down  rapidly,  thus  moving-  the  larg-e 
working-beam,  which  sets  the  whole  machinery  in  motion.  C 
and  D  are  exhaust-pipes. 

13.  Here  is  a  rough  drawing  to  show  how  the 
steam  does  its  work.     When  the  steam  comes 
fro'm  boiling  water  it  expands  very  much,  and 
this  expansion  is  the  power  we  employ. 

14.  The  cylinder  is  a  strong  vessel  of  iron  or 
steel  in  shape  like  one  joint  of  a  stovepipe,  but 
very  much  larger.     The  steam  comes  out  very 
hot,  as  well  as  very  powerful  and  expansive,  and 
getting  in  under  the  piston,  pushes  it  up,  and, 
consequently,   pushes   the   piston-rod  which   is 
attached  to  it.     This  rod  sets  the  machinery  in 
motion,   and   works   the   paddle-wheels  of  the 
steamboat  or  the  great  revolving  screw  or  pro- 
peller of  the  steamship. 

15.  When  the  steam  has  pushed  the  piston 
up  to  the  top  of  the  cylinder  the  steam-pipe  in- 
let is  shut  off  below  and  let  on  above.     At  the 


5°  How  Engines  Work. 

same  time  the  exhaust-pipe  outlet  is  closed  above 
and  opened  below,  so  that  by  opening  and  shut- 
ting these  outlets  and  inlets  the  piston  is  kept 
going  up  and  down  with  power  enough  to 
force  a  large  boat  through  the  water,  or  a  loco- 
motive with  many  cars  behind  it  along  a  rail- 
road. 


A  Steamship  and  Sailing-  Vessels  on  the  Ocean. 

1 6.  Men  have  also  made  steamers  whose  out- 
side is  entirely  of  iron.    One  of  these,  the  Great 
Eastern,  is  like  a  small  village  in  the  number  of 
persons  it  can  carry. 

17.  War-steamers    of  iron   have    been  built 


Iron  Ships — Ironclads.  51 

with  very  thick   sides   so   as  to  resist  cannon- 
balls. 

1 8.  The  Devastation,  an  English  vessel  of  this  class,  has 
on  her  sides  twelve  inches  of  iron,  backed  by  eighteen 
inches  of  wood,  and  the  Dictator,  an  American  vessel, 
has  six  inches  of  iron,  backed  by  forty-two  inches  of  wood, 
making  a  very  formidable  barrier. 


The  Ironclad  "  Merrimac." 

19.  Two    of  the   most    celebrated    ironclad 
vessels  of  war  were  the  Merrimac  (or  Virgi- 
nia) and  the  Monitor. 

20.  The  former,  a  Confederate  war-vessel,  with  a  slop- 
ing roof  of   railroad    iron,   attacked   and   destroyed   the 
Union  war-vessels   (not  ironclad)    Cumberland  and    Con- 
gress, whose  heavy  cannon-balls  glanced  harmlessly  off. 
Nothing  then  seemed  easier  than  to  destroy  all  the  other 
Union  vessels  it  could  reach ;  but  the  little  ironclad  Moni- 
tor, less  than  one-fifth  the  weight  of  the  Merrimac,  arrived 
from  New  York  just  in  the  nick  of  time.      The  two  iron- 
clads went  at  each  other,  and  for  several  hours  they  fought 
furiously.     Five  times  the  Merrimac  tried   to   run  down 
and    sink  her    brave    little    antagonist;    broadside    after 
broadside  was  hurled  at  it,  but  its  hull,  its  deck,  and  its 


52         Merrimac  and  Monitor — Docks. 

round,  revolving  turret  (small  tower)  were  too  strongly 
covered  with  plates  of  iron.  The  Merrimac  was  com- 
pelled to  retire  from  the  contest,  which  was  her  last. 


The  Monitor. 

21.  The  Monitor's  two  big  guns  were  fired  through 
openings  in  the  tower.  When  fired,  the  cannons  were 
brought  back  into  the  tower  and  the  openings  closed  by 
heavy  iron  doors. 

22.  This  famous  engagement  took  place  at 
the  mouth  of  the  James  River,  near  the  City 
of  Norfolk,  in  1862. 

23.  The  length  of  the  Monitor  was  174  feet  and  its 
width  41  feet. 

24.  A  dock  is   a  part  of  a  harbor  or  river 
which  is  enclosed    between    piers,  wharves,  or 
high  banks,  where  vessels  may  enter  to  load  or 
unload. 

25.  Some  docks  have  gates  to  close  tightly 
where  it  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  water  from 
running  out  with  the  falling  tide. 


Dry-Docks,  etc. 


Blackboard  Drawing-  of  a  floating-  Dry-Dock.    Water  let  into 
dock,  -which  sinks  to  receive  vessel. 

26.  A  dry-dock  is  one  from  which  the  water 
may  be  shut  out  or  pumped  out. 

27.  Some  dry-docks  are  floating  docks  like 
that  shown  in  the  chart  and  in  the  blackboard 
drawing.     Such  have  cisterns  or  hollow  spaces 
between   their   sides   or   under  the   floor,  into 
which  water  is  admitted  until  the  dock  sinks 
deep  enough  to  admit  a  vessel  needing  repairs. 


Blackboard  Drawing-  of  a  floating1  Dry-Dock.    Water  pumped 
out  of  dock,  causing  dock  to  rise,  lifting  the  vessel. 

28.  When   the   vessel  is  properly  braced  or 


54  Dry- Docks — How  Used. 

propped  up,  the  water  is  pumped  out  by  steam, 
and  the  dock,  vessel  and  all,  rise  as  you  see  in 
the  drawing. 

29.  Some  docks  at  low  tide  are  entirely  with- 
out water.     Such  are  enclosed  by  strong  gates, 
like  those  of  canals,  which  keep  the  water  in  to 
float  the  vessels.     These  also  are  dry-docks,  al- 
though not  floating  docks. 

30.  When  a  vessel  needs  repairing  or  clean- 
ing, it  sails  in  with  the  rising  tide,  and  is  then 
propped  up.     When  the  tide  falls  the  gates  are 
opened,  and   the  water  passes   out ;    then   the 
gates  are  closed,  and  the  water  is  kept  out  until 
the  vessel  is   ready  to  sail.     These   stationary 
dry-docks  are  constructed  only  in  those  rivers 
and  bays  in  which  the  rise  and  fall  of  the  tides 
are  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 

31.  The  city  of  London,  the  largest  city  in  the  world, 
has  such  docks  ;   its  tides  rise  and  fall  about  eighteen  feet. 
Such,  also,  are  the  magnificent  docks  of  the  city  of  Liver- 
pool, where  the  tides  rise  and  fall  fifteen  feet.     Much  of 
that  city's  importance  is  due  to  these  docks,  in  which  can 
be  seen  at  any  time  steamships  and  other  vessels  from  al- 
most every  country  in  the  world,  loading  or  unloading  their 
cargoes.      The   Brooklyn   dry-dock  is  the  finest  in  the 
United  States. 

32.  How  is  a  ship  steered?      By  means  of  a  helm,  or 
rudder. 

When  sailors  are  far  out  at  sea  and  no  land  is  in  sight, 
what  guides  have  they  in  ascertaining  the  directions  ?  The 
stars  and  the  mariner's  compass. 


REVIEW    OF    CHAPTER    IV. 

What  is  a  ship-yard  ?    A  place  where  ships  are  built? 

Where  are  ship-yards  located  ?  On  the  sea-coast  or  the  bank  of  a 
river. 

Mention  some  of  the  parts  of  a  ship.  The  keel,  ribs,  sides,  deck, 
hull,  masts,  and  sails. 

What  is  the  difference  between  steamships  and  sailing  vessels? 
Steamships  go  by  steam  and  with  the  aid  of  sails  ;  sailing  vessels,  only 
by  means  of  the  sails. 

Of  what  are  steamships  mostly  built?    Iron. 

What  do  ships  carry  from  this  country  to  Europe  in  large  quan- 
tities ?  Cotton,  corn,  wheat,  butter,  cheese,  petroleum,  beef,  and  pork. 

What  ocean  do  these  ships  cross  ?     The  Atlantic. 
In  what  direction  do  they  sail  going  there?    East. 

How  long  a  time  does  it  take  a  steamship  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  ?  About  ten  days. 

How  long  does  it  take  a  sailing  vessel  ?    A  month  or  more. 

What  warm  stream  in  the  ocean  do  these  ships  sail  in  or  across? 
The  Gulf  Stream. 

Name  some  parts  of  a  steamship's  machinery  ?  Furnaces,  boil- 
ers, cylinder,  working-beam,  propeller  or  screw,  the  steam  and  smoke- 
pipes. 

Mention  the  largest  steamship  ever  built?     The  Great  Eastern. 
What  is  an  iron-clad  war  vessel  ?    A  vessel  with  very  thick  sides 
covered  with  iron  to  resist  cannon-balls. 

Mention  two  celebrated  iron-clads.  The  Merrimac  and  the 
Monitor. 

What  is  a  dock  ?    A  place  where  ships  load  and  unload. 

What  is  a  dry-dock?  One  from  which  the  water  may  be  with- 
draws.. 


56  Exercises  on  the  Map. 

How  is  a  dry-dock  used  ?  //  is  filled  with  -water  to  receive  vessels, 
and  emptied  to  repair  them. 

What  is  a  floating  dry-dock  ?  One  which  is  filled  with  water  by 
sinking  it,  and  emptied  by  raising  it. 

What  is  a  mariner's  compass?  A  box  containing  a  card  on  which 
is  marked  all  the  points — north,  east,  south,  west,  etc.,  etc. — and  over 
which  a  magnetic  needle  turns  and  points  to  the  north. 

As  the  needle  shows  where  the  north  is,  it  is  easy  to  know 
where  is  the  south,  the  east,  or  the  west. 


(See  Wall  Map,  or  p.  40.)     In  what  direction  do  ships  sail  from 
the  United  States  to  Europe  ?     Northeast. 

To  Africa,  for  ivory  and  ostrich-feathers  ?     Southeast. 
To  the  West  Indies,  for  oranges  and  bananas  ?     South. 
To  South  America,  for  coffee  and  India-rubber?     Southeast. 
To  the  Arctic  or  cold  regions  for  furs  ?     North. 

With  each  of  above  answers,  the  pupil  should  point  towards  the  place  men- 
tioned. 


EXERCISES    ON   THE   MAP. 

On  the  map  of  the  world  you  may  see  lines  crossing  from  east 
to  west ;  they  are  (pointing  to  them  on  the  Wall  Map,  or  referring 
to  p.  40),  the  Equator,  Tropic  of  Cancer,  Tropic  of  Capricorn, 
Arctic  Circle,  and  Antarctic  Circle.  They  are  all  circles,  and 
appear  so  on  all  globps. 

They  divide  the  earth's  surface  into  five  belts  or  Zones,  which 
differ  greatly  in  the  amount  of  their  heat  and  cold. 

The  hot  zone  is  this  (pointing  to  it),  the  Torrid.  In  it  are  the 
hottest  countries  and  islands  of  the  world. 

Between  what  two  circles  is  the  Torrid  Zone  ?  The  Tropic  of 
Cancer  and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn . 

What  great  circle  passes  through  the  middle  of  the  Torrid  Zone  ? 
The  Equator. 


The  Five  Zones.  57 

Mention  some  places  in  the  hot  or  Torrid  Zone  ?  Nearly  all  of 
Africa  and  South  America. 

What  part  of  North  America  is  in  the  Torrid  Zone?  The 
Southern. 

What  part  of  Asia  is  in  it?     The  Southern. 

Is  any  part  of  Europe  in  it?  (See  p.  40.)  Any  part  of  Austra- 
lia ?  Any  part  of  Greenland  ? 

Furthest  from  the  hot  zone  are  the  two  cold  zones,  the  North 
Frigid  and  the  South  Frigid.  In  the  center  of  one  is  the  North 
Pole,  which  is  the  most  northern  point  of  the  Earth's  surface  ;  and 
in  the  center  of  the  other  is  the  South  Pole,  which  is  the  most 
southern  point  of  the  earth's  surface. 

The  North  Frigid  Zone  is  limited  or  bounded  by  the  Arctic 
Circle  ;  and  the  South  Frigid  Zone  by  the  Antarctic  Circle. 
(See  p.  40.) 

What  part  of  North  America  is  in  the  North  Frigid  Zone? 
What  part  of  Europe  ?  What  part  of  Asia  ? 

The  two  zones  which  lie  between  the  Torrid  and  the  Frigid 
Zones  are  neither  so  hot  as  the  one  nor  so  cold  as  the  others. 
They  have  a  more  temperate  climate,  and  are  called  the  North 
Temperate  Zone  and  the  South  Temperate  Zone. 

Between  what  two  circles  is  the  North  Temperate  Zone  ?  The 
Arctic  Circle  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer. 

Between  what  two  circles  is  the  South  Temperate  Zone?  The 
Antarctic  Circle  and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 

In  what  zone  is  the  greater  part  of  North  America,  which 
includes  the  country  we  live  in  ?  (p.  40.) 

In  what  zone  is  nearly  all  Europe  and  Asia?  The  southern  part 
of  South  America  ?  The  most  northern  part  of  Africa  ?  The  most 
southern  part  of  Africa?  The  southern  part  of  Australia?  The 
most  of  Greenland  ?  The  Sandwich  Islands  ? 

In  what  direction  would  you  sail  to  find  warm  weather,  with 
fruits  and  flowers  growing  in  the  open  air,  even  in  winter?  South. 

In  what  direction  would  you  sail  to  find  cold  weather,  ice-fields, 
and  icebergs,  even  in  summer?  North. 


58          Spelling  and  Writing  Lesson. 


SPELLING    AND    WRITING    LESSON. 

The  pupils  may  copy  the  following  exercise  on  their  slates  or 
papers,  filling  the  blank  spaces  with  the  proper  words. 


tz  ( 

s^?/y  /*  J             / 

Cs-fte  ^--a^L.     -tzw-fz. 

<£c£ 


,€£ 


cf  &. 

's&o44e. 

•*"/&,</  <&i<ci<£  m-i     -^fi^ie     to,     via^ 


Rivers — How  Formed.  59 


Head  of  River— Cascade— Mill— Overshot  Wheel. 

CHAPTER     V. 

RIVERS,    RAPIDS,    CASCADES,    ETC. 

1.  You   would   not  ride   far  on   a  railroad 
without  crossing  one,  perhaps   several,  rivers, 
which   are   streams   of  water   always    flowing 
toward  lower  ground.     Do  you  know  how  they 
are  formed,  where  they  come  from,  where  they 
go,  and  what  good  they  do  ? 

2.  Look   at   the   chart    and    you   will    see 
several  rivers.     Some  are  formed  by  rain  which 
sinks  into  the  ground  and   appears   again  at 
openings  in  lower  ground  as  springs,  and  others 
are  formed  far  up  the  sides  of  mountains  merely 
by  the  melting  of  snow. 


60  Rivers — Their  Uses. 

3.  On  the  chart  you  may  see  a  river  formed 
by  rain  which  falls  on  the  hills ;  and  on  the  left, 
in   front,  you  may  see  a   river  which  has   its 
source,  or   beginning,  or  head,  very  far  up  a 
mountain,  which  is  so  high  that  its  summit  or 
top  is  always  covered  with  snow.     (See  p.  14.) 

4.  Rivers   at   first    are    usually   very    small ; 
almost  any  of  you  could  jump  or  wade  across 
them.     In  some  places  they  tumble  over  preci- 
pices, where  they  are  called  cascades  or  water- 
falls.    But  as  they  flow  on  and  down,  they  are 
joined  by  other  little  streams  coming  from  dif- 
ferent directions,  and  little  by  little  they  grow 
larger  and  deeper. 

5.  In   some  places  you 
would  find  boys  and  men 
having  fine  sport  with  their 
fishing-rods,     lines,    and 
hooks    catching   trout    or 
other  fish. 

6.  As  you  descend  the  stream,  you  may  see 
a  mill  so  built  that  the  rushing  water  may  turn 

»a  great  wooden  wheel.  This  wheel  is  made 
either  with  broad  arms  like  the  paddle-wheels 
of  a  steamboat,  or  with  buckets  at  its  outer 
edge,  that  the  stream  may  so  strike  these  arms 
or  fill  the  buckets  as  to  turn  it  round  and 
round,  as  shown  on  the  next  page. 


Water-wheels — How   Used. 


Overshot-wheel.          Breast-wheel.          Undershot-wheel. 

Make  the  wheels  in  the  blackboard  drawing1  12  inches  in 
diameter,  and  instruct  the  class  that  a  mill-wheel  is  about 
12  feet  in  diameter,  making:  the  comparison  on  the  wall  of 
the  room. 

7.  How  this  water-wheel  turns  other  wheels 
and  the  stones  inside  the  mill  so  as  grind  wheat 
into  flour,  corn   into  meal,  or  to  saw  logs  into 
boards,  you  will  learn  in  a  lesson  further  on. 

8.  As  the  wheels  of  all  mills  are  not  turned 
by  water  in  precisely  the  same  way,  you  may 
see  from  the  blackboard  drawing  three  different 
ways  of  applying  the  water  to  the  wheels. 

9.  The  water-wheel  on  the  left  hand  of  the 
chart  is  called   an  overshot-wheel,  because  the 
water  is  shot  over  it. 

10.  When  the  water  comes  just  abreast  of  the 
axle  of  the  wheel  it  is  called  a  breast-wheel. 

1 1.  One  which  is  turned  by  a  stream  running 
under  it  is  called  an  undershot-wheel. 

12.  Such  a  one  is  used  by  the  washerwomen 
in  Paris,  where  it  is  attached  to  the  side  of  a 
large,  stout  boat  that  is  held  fast  by  anchors  or 
cables,  and  does  their  work  for  them. 


62          Rivers — Their   Uses — Lumber. 


A  Pine  Forest— Lumber-men  at  Work. 

13.  This  stream  that  runs   down  hill  is  also 
very   useful   for  carrying   down    logs.     In  the 
winter,  when  the  farmers  cannot  plough  or  sow 
or  reap,  they  go  into  the  woods  and  cut  down 
trees.     The   branches   they   cut   off  and  draw 
home  for  firewood,  but  the  trunks  they  cut  up 
into   logs   of    about   thirteen    feet  or  more   in 
length,  and  then  roll  them  to  the  bank  of  the 
stream,  or  drag  them  on  the  snow  by  means  of 
oxen  or  horses.     You  may  see  some  logs  in  the 
chart,  on  the  bank  of  a  stream. 

14.  Immense   quantities  of  lumber  are  obtained  every 
year  from  the  forests  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  Minne- 
sota, California,  Oregon,  Maine,  and  Canada. 


Rivers  Floating  Logs  to  the  Mill.      63 


Logs  Floating  down  a  Stream. 

1 5.  As  soon  as  the  snow  is  melted   and  the 
streams  are  full,  so  that  they  have  plenty  of 
water  to  float  them,  the  wood-choppers  roll  the 
logs  into  the  stream,  and  away  they  go,  helter- 
skelter,  until  they  are  stopped  by  a  "  boom  "  or 
stout  log  that  is  fastened  there  for  that  pur- 
pose.    Then,  one  by  one,  they  are  dragged  into 
the  saw-mill,  which  gets  all  its  power  (either 
steam  or  water-power)  from  the  same  water  that 
brought  down  the  logs. 

1 6.  When  a  log  is  fixed  securely  in  its  place, 
the  big  saw  begins  to  saw  it  up  into  boards. 
Sometimes  what  is  called  a  "  gang-saw  "  is  set 
to  work,  which  cuts  up  a  log  at  once  into  good 
boards  or  planks. 

17.  A  gang-saw  is   a  frame  full  of  saws  set  just  the 
width  of  a  board  apart.     For  what  are  boards  and  planks 
used? 


64  Rivers —  What  they   Carry. 

1 8.  Some  rivers  carry  from  the  lands  through 
which    they    flow    rapidly   great   quantities    of 
soft  earth  or  mud,  called  silt,  which  they  de- 
posit at  or  near  their  mouths. 

19.  Noted    for   this   are   the    Mississippi, 
Nile,  Ganges,  Danube,  Po,  Rhone,  and 
Rhine. 

20.  The  mud  deposited  in  this  way  divides  the 
stream  at  its  mouth,  giving  it  several  mouths ; 
the  land  so  filled  between  these  mouths  is  called 
a  delta. 

21.  The   land  on  which  the   City  of    New 
Orleans  stands,  and   for  a  long   distance  all 
around  it  and  down  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  was 
carried  there  by  the   Mississippi   River  and 
its  branches. 

22.  Look  at  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
where  the  Mississippi  flows  into  it  and 
you  will  see  that  a  large  part  of  the 
Gulf    has  been  filled  up  in  this  way. 
The  State  of  Louisiana  is,  therefore, 
growing    larger    every    year,    and    the 
mouth   of  that    great   river   is    getting 
further    and  further  from   the   City  of 
New  Orleans.     A  like  effect  is  caused 
by  the  River  Nile  where  it  flows  into 
the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

23.  It  is  estimated  that  the  Missis- 
sippi   River   carries    down    every   five       The  Biver  Nile, 
years  an  amount  of  silt  sufficient  to  cover  the  whole  of 
the  State  of  Rhode  Island  twelve  inches  deep. 


Overflow  of  Rivers — Levees. 


Mississippi  River— An  Inundation  or  Overflow. 

24.  After  long  and  heavy  rains  or  the  sudden 
melting  of  a  winter's  snow,  some  rivers  become 
so  full  that  they  overflow  their  banks,  and  the 
rush  of  their  water  over  the  low  lands  causes 
great   destruction.      To   prevent   this   on   the 
lower  Mississippi,  men  have  constructed  long, 
high  banks,  called  levees. 

Sometimes,  however,  a  bank  bursts  or  is 
washed  away,  and  the  overflow  does  immense 
damage  to  crops,  houses,  cattle,  etc. 

25.  The  overflow  of  the  Ohio  River  in  1883  caused 
great  damage  and  suffering  to  the  inhabitants  along  its 
banks.      Thousands    of    houses   were   lifted   from   their 
foundations  and  floated  off  by  the  rising  waters. 

26.  Although  damage  is  often  done  in  this 


66  Rise  of  the  Nile — Its  Uses. 

way  by  inundations,  they  are  not  always  destruc- 
tive; indeed,  in  some  places  people  could  not 
live  without  them. 

27.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  celebrated 
countries  in  the  world  owes  its  existence  to  the 
yearly  rise  and  overflow  of  a  river.    That  coun- 
try is  Egypt,  and  that  river,  the  Nile. 

28.  Rain  is  almost  unknown  in  Egypt,  and, 
consequently,  without   the   yearly  rise  of  the 
Nile,  that  country  would  be  a  desert. 

29.  The  Nile  rises  so  high  (30  to  35  feet) 
that  very  high  banks  have  been  constructed  in 
Egypt. 

30.  Through  gates  or  openings  in  these  banks 
and  by  means  of  small  canals  or  ditches,  the 
farmers  conduct  the  muddy  water  of  the  Nile 
to  their  farms  and  allow  it  to  flow  all  over  their 
land  and   cover   it  with  that  soft  mud  which 
makes  the  soil  very  fertile. 

3 1 .  Dry  and  barren  lands  in  Utah  have  been  converted 
into  rich  and  productive  farms,  orchards   and  gardens, 
simply  by  water  conducted  from  mountain  streams. 

32.  The  Nile  receives  its  water  from  the  lakes  of  Cen- 
tral Africa,  which  are  supplied  by  annual  rains.     This 
river  begins  to  rise  in  Egypt  in  the  month  of  June,  and 
attains  its  greatest  height  in  September. 


River  Banks — Canons. 


The  Rhine  River,  flowing-  through  Germany. 

33.  Some  rivers  are,  for  long  distances,  con- 
fined between  high,  natural  banks  or  bluffs,  like 
the  beautiful  Rhine,  which  flows  through  Ger- 
many ;  others  flow  between  very,  high  moun- 
tains, and   in    deep   gorges   or   ravines,  called 
canons  (kan'yons). 

34.  The  Colorado  River  (kol-o-rafi  do)  is  celebrated  for 
its  great  canons   in   Colorado,   Utah,  and  Arizona. 
Many  other  rivers  in  the  Territories  of  the  United  States 
flow  through  canons. 

35.  Where  the  bed  of  a  river  is  very  rough, 


68  Rapids — Lakes. 

rocky  arid  sloping,  the  water  rushes  down  vio- 
lently and  rapidly.  Such  parts  of  a  river  are 
called  rapids.  (See  rapids  in  the  chart.) 

The  St.  Lawrence  River  contains  the  celebrated 
Lachine  (Zah-sheeri)  Rapids. 

36.  A  lake  is  a  body  or  collection  of  water 
which  is  formed  and  fed  by  one  or  more  rivers ; 
these  are  called  its  inlets.     The  water  of  most 
lakes  is  fresh ;  some  lakes  which  have  no  out- 
lets or  outflowing  streams  are  salt. 

37.  The  largest  fresh  water  lakes  in  the  world  are  those 
between  the   United   States  and  the   Dominion   of 
Canada ;  their  names  are  Superior,  Huron,  Michi- 
gan, Erie,  and  Ontario.     Great  Salt  Lake  is  in  Utah. 
Observe  from  the  chart  that  some  lakes  are  on  low  and 
others  on  high  ground. 

38.  Lakes  and  rivers  are  very  useful  in  many 
ways ;  people  sail  on  them  to  different  parts  of 
their  State  or  Country,  and  on  them  they  send 
and  receive  all  sorts  of  things,  such  as  food, 
clothing,  and  building  materials,  very  easily  and 
cheaply.     On  account  of  these  advantages  peo- 
ple have  built  cities,  towns,  and  villages  on  or 
near  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes. 

39.  This  buying,  selling,  and  trading  between  people  of 
different  States  or  Countries  is  called  commerce.     Com- 
merce is  carried  on  also  by  way  of  railroads  and  canals 
and  the  great  ocean  or  sea.     (You  will  learn  about  canals 
in  Chapter  VIII.) 


REVIEW  OF  CHAPTER  V, 

What  is  a  river  ?  How  are  rivers  formed  ?  How  many  banks 
has  each  river?  Which  is  the  right  and  which  is  the  left  bank? 

As  you  descend  it,  the  bank  on  your  right  hand  is  the  right  bank  :  the 
otJier  is  the  left  bank. 

Why  are  mills  built  on  the  bank  of  a  river?  How  many  kinds 
of  water-wheels  are  there  ?  How  are  rivers  useful  to  lumber- 
men ? 

By  what  are  overflows  caused  ?  What  damage  is  caused  by  the 
sudden  rise  of  some  rivers  ?  What  is  done  to  prevent  overflows? 
Of  what  benefit  is  the  Nile  River  to  Egypt?  Which  is  the  largest 
river  in  the  world  ?  Amazon.  Where  is  the  Amazon  River?  In 
South  America. 

Which  are  the  longest  rivers  in  North  America  ?  Missouri  and 
Mississippi.  Which  are  the  longest  in  Europe?  Volga  and 
Danube.  In  Asia  ?  Yangtse  and  Lena.  In  Africa  ?  Nile. 

What  is  a  Canon ?  What  are  Rapids?  Cascades?  Where  are 
the  largest  lakes  in  the  world  ?  Mention  them. 

SPELLING    AND     WRITING     EXERCISE. 


d-at^^m-l. 


<? 


Write  a  composition  on  rivers  ;   enough  to  fill  one  page  of  a 
copy-book. 


About  Wells. 


Section  of  the  Ground  or  Rock,  showing  how  "Wells  are  supplied. 

A,  Ground  or  rock  through  -which  the  rain-water  sinks. 
C,  Rock  or  clay,  which  the  water  does  not  enter. 

B,  The  part  in  which  the  water  rests  or  flows. 


C  H  A  PTER    V  I  . 

WELLS,   SPRINGS,  ETC. 

1.  You   already   know   that   people  obtain 
fresh   water    from    springs,   lakes,   and  rivers. 
Where  else  is   fresh  water   obtained  ?  From 
wells. 

2.  When  it  rains,  some  of  the  water  runs  along  on  the 
surface  or  top  of  the  ground  and  finds  its  way  to  a  river ; 
some  of  it  is  "  dried  up  "  or  becomes  vapor  (page  16)  ;  and 
a  great  deal  "  soaks  away,"  or  sinks  down  into  the  ground. 
Where  does  that  go  ?     How  f,ar  does  it  go  ?     It  finds  its 


Pumps — Pressure  of  Air.  71 

way  down  either  through  soft,  loose  ground  or  gravel,  or 
through  crevices  in  the  rock,  and  continues  to  sink  until  it 
is  stopped  by  rock  or  clay,  which  it  cannot  penetrate. 
Therefore,  if  you  should  dig  a  pit  or  well  down  to  a  layer 
of  sand  in  which  the  water  rests  or  moves,  some  of  it  will, 
of  course,  flow  into  the  well. 

3.  Water    is    brought    up   from  a  well   by 
means  of  a  bucket,  or  a  chain  pump,  or  a  suc- 
tion pump. 

4.  A  chain  pump  is  composed  of  an  endless 
chain,  which  runs  through  a  pipe. 

5.  A   suction    pump   is   one   in   which   the 
water  is  made  to  rise  by  the  weight  or  pressure 
of  the  air. 

6.  Air  is  everywhere,  until  it  is  displaced  by 
something  else ;  a  cup  or  a  pitcher,  when  said 
to  be  empty,  is  full  of  air. 

7.  Air  has  weight,  and    is  moved    just    as 
water  and  sand  have  weight  and  are  moved. 
Like  water,  air  can  be  pumped. 

8.  Air  rests  or  presses  on  the  land  and  also 
on  the  water  in  the  ocean,  a  cup,  or  a  deep 
well. 

9.  If  you  should   remove   the  air  from  any 
spot  on  the  water,  you  would  see  the  water 
suddenly  rise  just  at  that   spot,  showing  the 
pressure  of  the  air  on  the  surrounding  portions. 


72  How  Water  is  Pumped. 

10.  If  you  should  suck  the  air  from  a  straw 
which  has  one  end  in  a 
cup  of  water,  you  would 
see  the  effect  of  air  pres- 
sure in  the  rising  of  the 
water  in  the  straw. 

n.  When  a  pump  is 
thus  placed  in  a  well, 
and  the  air  removed 
from  it,  the  water  rises, 
because  the  air  which 
rests  on  the  water  in  the 
well  presses  it  up. 

1 2.  In  the  first  draw- 
ing,  the   water   in    the 
well    and    that    in    the 
pump  are  on  the  same 
level,     because     air    is 

pressing     down      equally      Rod  g-oing-  down-upper  valve 
. ,  *       .  i  open,  lower  valve  closed. 

on   the  water  both  in-      n  n 

(!N  BLACKBOARD  DRAWINGS,  MAKE 

side  and  outside  of  the    THE  PuMP  THIRTY INCHES IN  LENGTH 

AND     THREE     INCHES    IN     DIAMETER  ; 

Pump  AND  THE  WELL  TEN   INCHES  IN   DIAM- 

ETER.) 

13.  The  pump  is  provided  with  two    little 
trap-doors  called  valves,  which  fit  tightly.     The 
lower  valve  is  fixed,  the  other  is  moved  up  and 
down  by  means  of  an  iron  rod  attached  to  the 
handle.     (See  p.  49.) 


Valves—  Vacuum. 


73 


14.  The  upper  valve  removes  the  air  from 
the  pump,  and  immedi- 
ately the  water  is  pressed 
up  and  flows  out  at  the 
spout. 

1 5.  The  valves  are  so 
made  that  the  water  and 
air  by  pressing  upwards 
open     them     and    rise 
above     them,     but    by 
pressing  downward, 
close    them ;    therefore, 
the  valves  prevent  the 
return     of    the     water 
through  the  pump  into 
the  well. 

1 6.  When  the  upper 
valve  goes  down,   it  is 

Bod  coming  up— Upper  Valve      opened    by    the    TUSh   of 
closed— Lower  Valve  open.  . 

air  upward,  but  when  it 

rises  it  is  closed  by  the  pressure  of  the  air  above 
it;  a  few  strokes  in  this  way  remove  the  air 
from  within  the  pump,  and  the  consequence  is 
that  the  air  in  the  well,  but  outside  of  the  pump, 
forces  the  water  upward  to  fill  the  vac'-u-um. 


17.  Any  space  which  contains  nothing — not  even  air — 
is  called  a  vacuum. 


74 


Artesian  Wells. 


1 8.  A  vacuum  may  be  formed  by  sucking  the  air  from  a 
small  glass  bottle,  and  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the 
surrounding  air  will  be  felt  on  your  lips  or  tongue,  perhaps 
painfully:  and,  if  the  glass  be  very  thin,  that  pressure 
may  crush  the  bottle. 


Artesian  Wells : — A,  A,  A,  Rock  or  clay  which,  water  cannot 
penetrate ;— B,  B,  Seams  or  Strata  in  which.  Subterranean 
Streams  flow;— C,  Subterranean  Reservoir  filled  with  Water 
by  Rains ;— D,  D,  Boring-s  in  the  Ground  or  Rock. 

19.  A  piece  of  leather,  soaked  in  water  and  pressed 
down  on  a  smooth  pavement,  adheres  tightly  to  it  by  the 
pressure  of  the  air  on  it.    In  this  case  a  vacuum  is  formed 
between  the  leather  or  sucker  and  the  pavement. 

20.  In  some  places  men  bore  deep  holes  in  the  rock  or 
ground,  from  which  the  water  spurts  up  like  fountains. 
Such  are  called  Artesian  Wells.     They  are  not  dug  like 
common  wells,  but  are  drilled  by  long,  sharp  bars  of  iron 
or  steel,  about  as  thick  as  a  man's  arm. 


Oil  Wells — Petroleum.  75 

21.  These  drilling  or  boring  tools  are  lifted  up  into  a 
high  wooden  tower  by  machinery,  and  let  fall,  as  rocks  are 
drilled  for  blasting.     (Such  a  tower  you  may  see  in  the 
large  chart.) 

22.  As  soon  as  the  bore  enters  a  seam  or  channel  in 
which  water  is  confined  by  surrounding  rock  or  clay,  the 
water  is  pressed  upward  through  this  small  opening.    The 
pressure  is  exerted  by  the  water  which  lies  in  these  same 
underground  channels  and  reservoirs  on  higher  ground. 

23.  The  underground  seams  serve  as  great  pipes  in 
holding  and  conducting  water  to  great  distances  ;  and  an 
Artesian  well  is  like  a  burst  in  a  pipe. 

24.  Artesian  wells  have  been  bored  to  depths  of  hun- 
dreds and  even  thousands  of  feet.     By  means  of  them  an 
abundance  of  water  is  obtained  even  in  deserts. 

25.  It  is  from  such  wells  as  these  that  the  oil 
called  petroleum  is  obtained,  which  is  used  for 
oiling  machinery  and  for  burning  in  lamps.     It 
is  from  this  that  kerosene  is  now  made. 

26.  The  oil  wells  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio  and  West 
Virginia  furnish  Europe  with  about  fifty  million  dollars' 
($50,000,000)  worth  of  oil  every  year. 

27.  The  origin  of  petroleum  or  rock-oil  is  variously 
attributed  to  vegetable,  animal  and  mineral  substances, 
which  may  have  sunk,  many  years  ago,  below  the  earth's 
surface  (p.  148). 

28.  Some  wells  yield  salt  water,  from  which  salt  is 
obtained  (pages  17  and  18).     Large  quantities  of  salt  are 
thus  made  in  New  York,  West  Virginia  and  Michigan. 


REVIEW  OF  CHAPTER  VI. 

Where  do  people  obtain  drinking  water  ? 

What  is  a  spring  ?      Water  flowing  out  of  the  ground. 

By  what  are  springs  formed  ?  Does  all  the  rain  sink  into  the 
ground?  What  becomes  of  the  rain?  What  is  a  well  ?  How  are 
wells  usually  made?  If  there  were  no  rain  or  snow,  would  we 
have  wells  and  springs  ? 

If  air  had  no  weight,  would  pumps  raise  water  as  they  do  now? 
Does  air  press  heavily  on  everything?  //  does.  If  you  should 
take  the  air  away  from  a  portion  of  any  body  of  water,  what  would 
be  the  result  ?  Water  would  rise  at  the  place  from  which  the  air  was 
removed. 

Why  does  water  or  any  liquid  rise  in  a  straw  when  you  suck  it  ? 
Because  the  air  is  removed  from  the  spot  enclosed  by  the  straw. 

Why  does  water  rise  in  a  suction  pump  ?  Because  the  air  is 
removed  from  within  the  pump. 

What  presses  the  water  upwards  through  the  pump  ?  The  air 
resting  on  the  water  outside  of  the  pump. 

What  is  an  Artesian  Well  ?  How  is  it  made  ?  How  deep  have 
some  been  bored? 

Do  all  wells  and  springs  give  fresh,  cool  water?  Some  give  salt 
watery  some  give  warm  water,  and  some  give  oil. 

Of  what  use  is  the  oil  which  is  obtained  from  wells  ?  Of  what 
use  is  the  salt  water?  Salt  is  made  from  it  by  evaporation.  (See 
pages  17  and  18.) 

SPELLING    AND    WRITING    EXERCISE. 


Write  a  composition  on  wells,  springs  and  pumps  ;  enough  to 
fill  one  page  of  a  copy-book  or  letter-paper. 


Capes — Isthmuses — Straits.  77 

CHAPTER    VII. 

CAPES,  ISLANDS,  PENINSULAS,  ETC. 

1.  Points   of  land  which   project  into  the 
water  are  called  Capes.    A  high  cape  is  called 
a  Promontory.     A  light-house  is  seen  in  the 
Chart  on  a  Promontory :  and  another  on  one 
of  the  capes. 

Two   of   the  best  known  capes  are  Cape 
Horn  and  Cape  Good  Hope. 

2.  A  narrow  neck  or  strip  of  land  is  called 
an  Isthmus ;  and  a  narrow  passage  of  water 
is  called  a  Strait,  sometimes  a  Channel.      A 
well  known  isthmus  is  that  of  Panama,  or 
Darien,  which  joins  North  and  South  America. 
A  well  known  strait  is  that  of  Gibraltar,  which 
connects  the  Mediterranean   Sea  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean ;  another  is  Behring  Strait, 
which  separates  North  America  from  Asia  and 
connects  the  Arctic  with  the   Pacific   Ocean; 
another,  called  Davis  Strait,  connects  Baffin 
Bay  with   the   Atlantic;    and   another,  called 
Hudson  Strait,  connects  Hudson  Bay  with 
the  Atlantic. 

3.  These  straits  received  their  names  from 
distinguished  navigators  who  discovered  them. 


78          Islands — Peninsulas —  Tunnels. 

4.  Hudson  entered  Hudson  Strait  and  dis- 
covered Hudson   Bay,  which  he  thought  was 
the  Pacific  Ocean ;  but,  of  course,  he  was  mis- 
taken.    He  also  explored  Hudson  River. 

5.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  Island 
and  a  Peninsula?     An  Island  is  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  water,  and  a  Peninsula  is  almost 
surrounded  by  water. 

Point  out  on  a  map  of  the  world  the  follow- 
ing Islands : 

6.  Australia,  which  is  the  largest  island  in  the  world, 
and  is  celebrated  for  its  rich  gold  mines  and  large  flocks  of 
sheep.     Borneo,  which  is  crossed  by  the  Equator  and  is 
very  hot.     The  British  Isles,  which  include  England, 
Scotland,   Wales,   and  Ireland.    The  Japan   Islands, 
which  have  almost  as  many  inhabitants  as  the  United 
States.     The  West  Indies,  which  have  a  warm  climate 
and  produce  sugar  and  oranges.     The  Friendly  and  the 
Society  Islands,   also   warm,  which  produce  bananas 
and  cocoanuts. 

7.  A  little  west  of  the  center  of  the  Chart  you 
may  see  a  Tunnel  cut  through  the  solid  rock 
for  trains  to  pass  through.     A  celebrated  tun- 
nel is  in  the  western  part  of  Massachusetts.    It 
is  cut  through  the  mountains  and  is  nearly  five 
miles  long;    it  is  the   Hoosac  Tunnel.     The 
Mount  Cenis  (se-ne1)  tunnel  through  the  Alps 
is  nearly  eight  miles  long.      Several  tunnels 


Emigrants. 


79 


pass  under  the  Thames,  the  river  which  flows 
through  the  city  of  London.  It  is  proposed  to 
construct  a  railroad  tunnel  under  the  Hudson 
River  between  New  York  and  Jersey  City. 


,^~ 

3£g 

Emigrants  crossing-  the  Mountains— a  Mountain  Pass. 


\^£^w 


8.  Not  far  from  the  tunnel  you  may  see  a 
company  of  emigrants*  on  their  way  west.  They 
may  be  from  some  of  the  large  cities  of  the 
States,  or  they  may  have  lately  arrived  in  this 
country  from  Germany,  England,  Sweden,  Nor- 
way, or  other  part  of  Europe,  intending  to  buy 
land  in  one  of  our  Western  States  or  Terri- 
tories and  become  industrious  farmers. 

*  In  the  Country  or  State  which  they  leave  they  are  called  Emigrants;  in 
that  which  they  enter,  Immigrants. 


8o  Canals — Their  Uses. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

CANALS. 

1.  In  this  part  of  the  chart  you  see  a  canal 
with  locks  and  gates.      Here   is   a    canal-boat 
drawn  by  horses.     Canals  are  artificial  rivers. 

2.  There  is  one  in  the  State  of  New  York 
that  is  three  hundred  and  fifty-two  miles  long. 
It  reaches  from  Lake  Erie  to  the  Hudson 
River ;  and  this  canal  has  done  much  to  make 
the  city,  as  well  as  the  State,  of  New  York  so 
large  and  wealthy  as  it  is. 

3.  If  you  will  look  at  your  map  you  will  see 
that   any  kind  of  produce   from  the  farms,  the 
forests,  or  the  mines  can  be  brought  by  vessels 
from  the  far  western  shore  of  Lake  Superior 
or  of  Lake  Michigan,  many   hundreds  of 
miles  distant,  all  the  way  by  water  to  Buffalo, 
thence    by   this   long   canal    to   the    Hudson 
River,  and  down  this   river   to   the   wharves 
of  New  York  City,  from  which  it  can  reach 
all  the    navigable   waters   in    the  world.     This 
water-carriage   is   the   cheapest   of  all.      There 
are  no  rails  to  be  paid  for  or  to  put  down,  but 
any  man  can  move  about  wherever  he  chooses, 
up  and   down  the  navigable  rivers,  or  to  and 
fro  for   thousands   of   miles  "  over   the    broad 
bosom  of  the  ocean." 

4.  Look  at  the  map,  and  you  will  see  that  a   sailing 


Canal-locks — How  Constructed.          81 

voyage  from   Lake  Superior  or  Lake   Michigan  includes 
Lake  Huron  and  Lake  Erie. 

5.  The  only  difficulty  about  some  canals  is 
that  they  will  freeze  up  in  winter.     Then  the 
railroads  get  the  better  of  them,  and  carry  large 
quantities     of  goods   during    the    long   winter 
months. 

6.  This  large  canal,  however,  which  is  called 
the  Erie  Canal,  is  only  about  half  as  long  as 
one  in  China,  which  runs  from  the  great  city 
of  Pekin  to  the  great  river  Yangtse  Kiang. 
There  are  said  to  be  about  four  hundred  canals 
in  China. 

7.  These  are  used  not  only  as  water  highways  to  float 
goods  or  produce  from  place  to  place,  but  also  for  irriga- 
tion— that  is,  to  water  the  fields,  so  that  the  plants  may 
grow  better,  and  thus  yield  a  more  abundant  crop. 

8.  In  Egypt,  where  it  very  seldom  rains,  the  land  is 
watered  in  this  way  by  water  from  the  Nile  River. 

9.  In  canals  they  have  a  curious  way  of  mak- 
ing boats  climb  up  hill ;   for  canals  must  some- 
times be  made  on  ground  that  is  high  in  one 
part  and  low  in  another.     Where  a  high  and  a 
low   level   meet,  as   shown    in  the  blackboard 
drawing,  it  is  necessary  to  build  what  is  called  a 
lock,  perhaps  because  it  locks  the  parts  together. 
This  is  a  shaft   or   well-hole  of  stone,  carefully 
laid   in    cement    so    as  to    be    water-tight,  ex- 
tending down  from  the  upper  to  the  lower  level 


82  Canal-locks — How  Used. 

of  the  canal  with  a  gate  on  one  side,  at  the  bot- 
tom, opening  into  the  lower  level,  and  another 
on  the  opposite  side,  at  the  top,  opening  into 
the  upper  level.  These  gates  or  doors  can  be 
shut  so  as  to  be  water-tight. 


Canal.  A  boat  at  low  level  about  to  enter  a  lock  so  as  to  reach 
the  upper  level.  Lower  grate,  A,  opens  to  admit  boat ;  upper 
grate,  B,  closed. 

10.  When  a  boat  is  to  go  up  hill,  the  door  at 
the  top  being  closed,  the  one  at  the  bottom  is 
opened,  and  the  boat  floats  through  into  the 
lock. 


Boat  in  canal-lock,  lower  gate,  A,  about  to  be  closed.    "Water 
to  be  let  into  lock  from  upper  canal  until  the  lock  is  full. 

ii.  That  door  is  then  closed  and  the  upper 
one,  or  a  valve  in  it,  is  gradually  opened,  letting 


How  Canal-boats  are  Raised.  83 

the  water  run  down  into  the  lock  until  the  water 
in  the  lock  is  on  a  level  with  that  in  the  upper 
canal.  The  upper  door  or  gate  is  then  opened, 
and  the  boat  floats  out  upon  the  upper  level. 


Upper  gate,  B,  is  opened,  and  the  boat  enters  upper  canal. 

1 2.  Where  a  canal  passes  through  land  which 
is  hilly  or  sloping,  there  are  sometimes  so  many 
locks  as  to  resemble  a  flight  of  stairs,  as  shown 
on  the  chart,  in  the  middle-ground. 

13.  Canal-boats  going  from  Albany  to  Buf- 
falo on  the  Erie  Canal  must  ascend,  as  shown 
in  the  drawing  above  ;    so  also  on  the  Wei- 
land    Canal,    from    Lake   Ontario   to    Lake 
Erie ;  and  on  the   Canal  by  which  steamboats 
on  their  way  from  Montreal  to  Lake  On- 
tario avoid  the  rapids  in  the  St.  Lawrence 
River. 

14.  Welland   Canal  is  the  only  route   by  which  boats 
can  sail  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario,  because  the  falls 
(160  feet  high)  in  Niagara  River  render  navigation  be- 
tween these  two  lakes  impossible  by  way  of  that  river. 


How  Canal-boats  are  Lowered. 


Boat  descending:  and  about  to  enter  the  lock. 

15.  When  a  boat  is  to  go  from  a  high  to  a 
low  level,  the   order  of  opening  and   closing 
the  gates  is  simply  reversed. 

1 6.  When  the  boat  reaches  the  upper,  closed  gates,  the 
lower  gates  are  closed ;  then  the  water  is  let  into  the  lock 
until  it  is  full.     The  upper  gates  are  then   swung  open 
against  the  sides  of  the  canal  and  the  boat  enters  the  lock. 


Boat  in  lock,  and  about  to  descend  to  the  lower  level. 

17.  It  is  now  easy  to  see  that  by  letting  the  water 
out  of  the  lock  and  by  opening  the  lower  gates,  the  upper 
gates  remaining  closed,  the  boat  settles  down  with  the 
water  and  passes  out  on  the  lower  level. 


Canals,  where  built.     Suez  Canal.        85 


A  Canal-boat  drawn  Toy  horses. 

1 8.  Canals   are   often    built    alongside    of 
rivers  which  are  not  navigable.     The  water  of 
the  river  may  be  too  shallow,  or  its  course  too 
rapid  or  dangerous  for  boats. 

19.  We  have  many  canals  in  this  country, 
especially  in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

20.  They  are  numerous  also  in  Europe.     In 
Amsterdam,  the  largest  city  in  Holland,  and 
in   the   beautiful   city   of  Venice,    in    Italy, 
they  have  canals  instead  of  streets. 

21.  An  important  canal  unites  the  Red  with 
the    Mediterranean    Sea.      It  crosses  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez,  and  shortens  the  route  be- 
tween   Europe,   China,   and    India,   which 
formerly  was  by  way  of  Cape  Good  Hope. 


85  Aqueducts — How  Constructed. 


Aqueduct  supplying-  city  with,  water  from  lake.  Dotted  line 
shows  the  lavel  of  the  lakVs  surface,  and  tha  height  to  which 
its  water  may  rise  in  the  aqueduct  and  pipes. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

AQUEDUCTS. 

1.  On  this  part  of  the  chart  you  see  a  reser- 
voir (pointing  to  it).     It  receives  fresh    water 
from  the  lake  beyond  and  above  it,  and  supplies 
the  city  by  means  of  an  aqueduct,  as  shown  in 
the  blackboard  drawings. 

2.  An  aqueduct  is  a  long  pipe  for  conducting 
water.     It  is  made  of  lead  or  iron  or  earthen- 
ware, or  sometimes  it  is  a  large  tube  of  mason- 
work  covered  over  smoothly  with  cement  so  as 
to  be  water-tight. 

3.  Near  the  reservoir  is  a  tower  or  stand-pipe, 
into  which   water  is  pumped  high   enough   to 
supply  buildings  which  are  higher  than  the  re- 
servoir. 

4.  A  tube  or  pipe  can  conduct  water  down- 
wards, then  upwards  as  high  as  its  source,  but 
no  higher,  on  the  principle  that  "  water  always 
seeks  a  level." 


Aqueducts  under  Lakes  Michigan  and  Erie.  87 


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88  How  Bridges  are  Built. 

CHAPTER  X. 

BRIDGES. 

i.  Here  is  a  suspension  bridge.  It  is  made  by 
building  two  tall  piers  or  towers,  and  stretching 
large,  strong  ropes  or  cables,  usually  made  of 
wire,  across  the  tops  of  these.  The  cables  neces- 
sarily sag  by  their  own  weight,  so  as  to  make  a 
curve.  Pieces  of  rope  or  iron  rods  are  fastened 
to  the  cables,  and,  as  they  hang  straight  down, 
are  fastened  to  the  ends  of  beams,  on  which 
the  floor  of  the  bridge  is  laid.  On  this  floor 
people  walk,  or  wagons  pass,  or  even  locomo- 
tives with  trains  can  cross  when  the  bridges 
are  made  strong  enough. 


Blackboard  Drawing1.  Mark  the  piers  one  foot  apart ;  then  the 
cables  "over  the  tops  of  the  piers ;  next,  the  rods  and  floors,  or 
roadway. 

2.  The  oldest  of  these  is  said  to  have  been 
made  in  China  in  the  year  65.     It  was  made 
of  chain  cables  with  a  floor  of  wood. 

3.  The  Indians  in  South  America  make 
them  of  bark  ropes,  and  sometimes,  instead  of  a 
floor  for  the  traveler  to  walk  on,  there  is  a  basr 


Suspension  Bridges.  89 

ket  into  which  he  is  put,  and  in  which  he  is 
pulled  over  from  one  side  of  a  river  to  the  other. 

4.  One  of  the  finest  suspension  bridges  in  the  world  is 
at  Niagara.     It  has  a  span  of  over  800  feet,  and  is  nearly 
250  feet   above  the   Niagara  River.     This  bridge  is  so 
strong  that  ordinary  trains  pass  over  it. 

5.  Another  at  Cincinnati,  over  the  Ohio  River,  is 
more  than  2,200  feet  in  length.     Its  height  above  the  wa- 
ter is  about  100  feet. 

6.  The  largest  suspension  bridge,  most  probably,  in  the 
world    is   that    now    in    process    of  construction  between 
New  York  and  Brooklyn  over  the  East  River.     It  is 
3,475  feet  long  between  the  anchorages,  with  a  clear  span 
over  the  river  of  1,595  ^eet<      The  bottom  of  it  is  135  feet 
above  the  water. 

7.  Light  suspension    bridges  are  sometimes 
broken  by  too  much  vibration.     This  happened 
to  a  small   bridge    over   the  river    Loire,  in 
France,  at  a  place  called  Angers. 

8.  A  lieutenant  in  command  of  a  party  of  soldiers  march- 
ed them  in  the  usual  way,  without  causing  them  to  break 
step.     As  their  regular  tramp,  tramp  was  felt  by  the  bridge, 
it  began  to  swing,  and  went  on  swinging  more  and  more, 
until  it  finally  broke  from  its  fastenings  and  precipitated 
those   on   it   into   the  river,  where  several  of  them  were 
killed. 

9  Suspension  bridges  are  so  called  because 
the  floor  or  roadway  is  hung  or  suspended  from 
the  curved  cables.  Other  bridges  are  built  of 
stone,  iron,  wood,  or  brick  ;  their  roadways 
usually  over  or  alongside  of  the  arches. 


go  The  St.  Louis  Bridge. 

10.  A  most  remarkable  bridge  (not  suspen- 
sion) is  that  which  crosses  the  Mississippi 
River  at  the  great  city  of  St.  Louis.  This 
bridge  is  chiefly  of  steel,  its  three  immense 
arches  resting  on  four  stone  piers.  Each  span 
is  over  500  feet  in  extent.  There  are  two  road- 
ways, one  above  the  other. 


One  span  of  the  St.  Iiouis  Bridg-e.    Add  the  two  other  arches  or 
spans,  each  ten  inches  on  the  blackboard  and  similar  to  this. 

In  what  direction  does  the  Mississippi  River  flow  ? 
South.  In  what  State  does  it  rise  or  begin  ?  Minnesota. 
In  what  State  does  it  end  ?  Louisiana.  What  large 
rivers  flow  into  it  ?  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Red,  and  Ohio. 

ii.  When  you  look  at  the  foundations  of 
bridges,  lighthouses,  and  stone  piers  which  are 
under  water,  you  doubtless  wonder  how  the 
masons  built  them.  I  shall  now  tell  you.  One 
way  is  to  sink  or  drive  down  heavy  timbers  or 
piles  around  the  place  selected  for  the  founda- 
tion, fill  all  around  and  between  these  with 
stone,  clay,  and  cement,  and  pump  out  the  wa- 
ter from  the  enclosure ;  the  workmen  then  de- 
scend and  build  the  foundation. 


A  Diver  at  Work — Diving-belL         9 1 


12.  Another   way  is   simply  for   the  work- 
man to  put  on  a  pecu- 
liar kind  of  a  suit  made 

of  India-rubber,  which 
completely  covers  him 
and  keeps  out  the  water. 
Glass  is  fixed  in  the 
helmet  for  him  to  see 
through.  Of  course,  he 
must  have  air  to  breathe ; 
that  is  supplied  by  a 
hose  or  tube  leading 
from  the  inside  of  his 
suit  or  covering  up  to  a 
boat,  where  other  men 
are  carefully  pumping 
air  to  him  through  the 
hose.  In  such  suits, 
men  go  under  the  water 
to  examine  and  repair 
ships,  recover  wrecks,  sunken  treasures,  etc. 

1 3.  The  diving-bell  is  another  means  by  which 
men  descend  and  work  in  the  water. 

14.  Its  principle  is  seen  in  pressing  any  vessel  like  a 
tumbler  into  the  water,  with  its  mouth  downward. 

15.  The  air  confined  in  the  tumbler  keeps  the  water  out 
and  displaces  it,  just  as  a  block  or  a  stone  would  do. 

1 6.  Fresh  air  is  pumped  into  the  diving-bell  as  shewn 
above. 


A  Man  in  a  Diver's  Suit  or 
Armor  building  a  Founda- 
tion under  Water. 


REVIEW  OF  CHAPTERS  VIII,  IX,  and  X. 

Are  canals  natural  or  artificial  ?    Artificial. 

Are  rivers  natural  or  artificial?    Natural. 

What  are  canals  like?     Long,  wide  ditches. 

What  are  they  built  for  ?    For  the  use  of  boats. 

What  do  canal -boats  carry?  Grain,  coal,  bricks,  lumber,  and  o  the  f 
articles. 

By  what  other  means  are  such  articles  carried  ?  By  railroads  and 
steamboats. 

What  advantage  have  canals?     Cheapness. 

What  important  canal  crosses  the  State  of  New  York  ?  Erie 
Canal. 

What  city  at  the  west  end  of  the  Erie  Canal  ?  Buffalo,  on  Lake 
Erie. 

What  city  at  the  east  end  ?    Albany,  on  the  Hudson. 

How  are  canal  boats  raised  and  lowered  between  different  ele- 
vations ?  By  means  of  locks. 

How  are  some  cities  supplied  with  fresh  water  ?  By  means  of 
aqueducts. 

What  are  usually  selected  as  the  source  ?  Springs  or  lakes  on  high 
ground. 

What  natural  law  assists  men  in  conducting  water  in  aqueducts  ? 
Water  always  seeks  a  level. 

When  a  lake  or  source  is  not  high  enough,  what  is  necessary? 
Pumping. 

Explain  if  you  can  how  Chicago  is  supplied  with  fresh  water 
from  Lake  Michigan. 

In  constructing  a  suspension  bridge,  what  parts  are  built  first  ? 
The  two  high  piers. 

What  next?  Cables  are  passed  over  the  piers  and  fastened  in  the 
ground  or  rock. 

What  is  the  purpose  of  the  cables?  To  hold  up  the  fioor,  which 
is  made  to  hang  from  them. 

For  review  lessons  in  geography  the  teacher  may  require  the 
pupils  to  give  the  situation  of  all  the  places  which  appear  in  the 
text  in  large,  black  type. 


Spelling  and  Writing  Lessons.        93 

SPELLING     AND    WRITING     LESSONS. 


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M    E   X    I     C    <  _WEST_J 

s 


NORTH  AMERICA 


EXERCISES  ON  TIJE  M^P  OF  NORTH  J^ERICA. 

1.  This  division  of  the  Earth  (pointing  to  the  map)  is 
surrounded  by  what   three   oceans?      Which   is   on   the 
north  ?     On  the  east  ?     On  the  west  ? 

2.  What  can  you  say  about  the  Arctic  Ocean  ?    //  is 

the  coldest  of  these  oceans ;   it  contains  icebergs  and  ice-fields 
all  the  year;  seals  and  white  bears  are  numerous  there. 

3.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ?     Ships 
and  steamers  cross  it  between  the  United  States  and  Europe. 

4.  What  can  you  say  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  ?     //  is  the 
largest  ocean  ;  it  contains  very  many  islands. 

5.  In  what  country  of  North  America  do  we  live  ?    In 
the  United  Stqtes.    What  oceans  touch  this  country  ?    What 
gulf  south  of  it  ?     What  large  river  flows  into  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  ?     What  other  large  rivers  are  in  this  country  ? 

6.  What  country  north  of  the  United  States?     What 
country  south  ?     What  three  chains  of  mountains  in  the 
United  States  ?     Rocky,  Sierra  Nevada  and  Alleghany. 

7.  What  minerals  are  found  in  the  western  part  of  this 
country  ?     What  part  is  celebrated  for  cotton,  sugar,  and 
oranges  ?     For  lumber,  wheat,  and  corn  ? 

8.  What   large   bay  in   British   America?     What  bay 
between  British  America  and  Greenland  ?     What  isthmus 
joins  North  and  South  America?     In  what  three  zones  is 
North  America  ?     The  northern  part  is  in  the  North  Frigid 
or  Cold  Zone ;  the  southern  part,  in  the  Torrid  or  Hot  Zone ; 
and  the  middle  part,  in  the  North  Temperate  Zone.     Men- 
tion the  countries  of  North  America, — some  of  the  islands, 
— gulfs, — bays, — rivers, —  straits. 


96  About  North  America. 

9.  You  have  heard  that  some  countries  are 
very  warm  at  the  same  time  that  some  other 
countries  are  very  cold.     That  is  true. 

10.  If  two  boys  should  start  from  this  coun- 
try in  the  month  of  March,  one  for  Greenland 
and  the  other  for  South  America,  one  would 
find  it  colder  and  colder,  and  the  other  warmer 
and  warmer,  every  day. 

1 1.  If  each  should  write  a  letter  home  from 
there  on  New  Year's  day,  one  might  read  like 
this: 


td  ci.4etic/-£.M,'£'i.i£  c.-o.<tc 


/  &>  .  ./    . 

fZ  d^i^i't^i..         (Qit.'e'M,   til,  dumtn-e-t    &£•  -td  d-a 

£  i,tt<e     tw.-itd't 


f 

ete. 


12.  The  other  boy  would  write  from  Brazil 
something  like  this : 


.j 


id   Oe-ut         eti'i.  d 

<z.4tt/  tsf  id.  do. 

•'         •   •    ' 
'W'ty     m     <i. 
s 


s  s  s          / 

Cs-A-e'i-e     €iie  -tvCd  <a£  wt-c-e  -a^-ct^i-aed  -fimz 


S 


Columbus  and  the  Indians.  97 


/    /  /  / 

u^-  -f^jf.    <za&4d;    -emtz 

/  x 

- 


Cx    cct-n.   c-^^^^t. 


13.  In  North  America  are  bears,  buffaloes, 
wolves,  foxes,  rabbits,  and  many  tame  animals, 
but  no  wild  lions  or  elephants  or  camels. 

14.  About  four  hundred  years  ago  there  were 
no  white  people  in  North  or  South  America — 
none  but  Indians,  some  of  whom  were  savage. 

15.  Indians  had  inhabited  America  no  one 
knows  how  long;  but  it  was  in  the  year  1492 
that  Columbus  first  sailed  across  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  from  Europe,  with  three  ships  and  about 
one  hundred  Spaniards.    They  landed  on  one 
of  the  islands  of  the  West  Indies.     Columbus 
was,  therefore,  the  discoverer  of  America 

1 6.  Many  other  people  came  here  afterward 
— Spaniards,  French,  and  British,  nearly  all  of 
whom  took  possession  of  America  without  the 
slightest  regard  for  the  Indians,  who  were,  of 
course,  the  first  owners. 

1 7.  The  Spaniards  took  Mexico ;  the  British 
and  French,  nearly  all  the  remaining  portion  of 
North  America.     (See p.  143,  paragraph  13.) 


98 


Wood — Fruits —  Vegetables. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

TREES  AND  PLANTS,  AND   THEIR   USES. 

i.  Trees  and  other 
plants  are  very  useful  to 
us,  and  we  ought  to  be 
very  grateful  for  them. 
We  eat  them,  we  wear 
them,  we  walk  on  them, 
we  sit  on  them,  we  sleep 
on  them,  and  are  shel- 
tered by  them  all  day 
and  all  night.  Our  shirts 
and  collars  of  muslin  and 
of  linen  are  given  us 
by  the  cotton-plant  and 
the  flax.  We  sit  down 
on  chairs  of  oak  or  maple,  or  some  other  wood, 
which  rest  on  a  wooden  floor,  on  which  we 
walk.  For  our  dinner-table  the  potato-plant 
has  sent  us  its  roots,  or  rather  tubers  ;  the  wheat 
or  rye  gives  us  our  bread ;  the  tomato,  the 
carrot,  the  turnip,  the  squash,  the  egg-plant,  and 
a  host  of  others  all  help  to  supply  us  with  foodf 
while  apples,  peaches,  pears,  grapes,  and  other 
delicious  fruits  are  held  out  to  us  by  many  trees, 
bushes,  and  vines. 

2.  If  we  wish  to  build  a  carriage,  omnibus, 
cart,  wagon,  car,  or  railroad,  the  oak,  the  ash,  the 


r 


An  Apple-Tree. 


Bread-fruit — Rice — Coffee.  99 

maple,  the  chestnut,  the  pine,  and  other  trees 
supply  us  with  materials  for  them  all. 

3.  If  we  wish  to  go    across   the   ocean,  the 
trees  supply,  us  with  materials  for  ships. 

4.  If   we  go  as  far  as  the  island  of  Ceylon, 
one  tree  there,  called  the  bread-fruit  tree,  will 
supply   us  with   bread,  which    hangs   in    small 
loaves  from  the  brancfies.     All  you  have  to  do 
is  to  take  it  and  bake  it  and  eat  it. 

5.  If  you  go  to  China  or  Japan,  you  will 
find  the  tea-plant,  that  gives  us  a  pleasant  drink, 
and  you  will  find  there  also  about  twenty  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  rice.     Besides  these  is  a  tallow- 
tree,  that  supplies  materials  for  candles. 

6.  The  tallow  of  which  our  candles  are  made   is   the 
suet  or  fat  of  such  animals  as  the  ox  and  sheep. 

7.  If  you  should  sail  to  Brazil,    Arabia, 
Abyssinia,  or  other  warm  countries,  or  to  the 
Island  of  Java,  you  would  see  fields  covered 
with  evergreen  plants  bearing  small  berries  which 
furnish  a  part  of  the  breakfast  for  many  millions 
of  people  every  day.     What  is  it  ?     Coffee. 

8.  Besides   the  places   mentioned,  coffee  grows  in  the 
West  Indies,  Central  America,  Venezuela,  Guiana, 
Peru,  Bolivia,  Ceylon,  and  some  of  the  islands  in  the 
Pacific  Ocean. 

9.  Although  the  coffee-plant  attains  the  height  of  8  to 
20  feet,  it  is  usually  kept  pruned  to  5  feet  in  height.     The 
plants  are  raised  from  seed  and  transplanted.     They  are  in 


I  oo    Coffee —  Cocoanuts — Palm-oil — Sago. 

full  bearing  in  the  fifth  year  and  continue  to  bear  for  about 
twenty  years. 

10.  Coffee  is  named  from  a  re- 
gion south  of  Abyssinia,  named 
Kaffa. 

11.  The  best  coffee  is  the  Mo- 
cha, named  from  a  place  in  Ara- 
bia, and  the  Java.     Most  of  our 
coffee  comes  from   Brazil,  and 
much  of  it  is  marked  Java. 

12.  Maracaybo  (Mah-ra-ki'- 
bo],  which  has  given  its  name  to  one 
variety  of  coffee,  is  in  Venezuela. 

13.  In  Africa  and  Asia 
Branch  of  a  coffee-piant.  are  many  kinds  of  palm. 
These  supply  cocoanuts,  palm-sugar,  palm-wine, 
and  palm-oil.  The  latter  is  used  in  this  country 
to  make  soap,  and  perhaps  some  of  you  have 
washed  your  hands  with  this  very  palm-soap. 

14.  Some  of  you,  perhaps,  have  eaten  sago  in 
pudding.     Sago  comes  from  a  kind  of  palm,  and 
a  very  wonderful  tree  it  is. 

15.  A  man  can  live  for  a  year  upon  one  of  these  trees. 
It  seems  rather  funny  for  a  man  to  eat  up  a  tree,  but  so  it  is. 

16.  Its  preparation  consists  in  cutting  off  the  branches 
and  also  the  hard  outside  part  of  the  trunk.     The  whole 
interior  of  the  tree  is  composed  of  a  highly  nutritious  sub- 
stance held   together  by  fibers.     This  is  roughly  grated  or 
pounded  into  a  pulp,  which  is  made  into  flat  cakes  and 
baked. 

17.  One  sago-tree  supplies  cakes  enough  to 
feed  one  man  for  a  whole  year. 


Palms  —  Soap  —  Wax  —  B  rooms;'1      \  o  I 


1  8.  The  cbcoanut- 
palm  not  only  gives 
us  this  fruit,  but  sup- 
plies us  with  oil  that 
makes  the  only  soap 
that  can  be  used  with 
salt  water.  Another 
palm  gives  us  millions 
of  fans  that  are  sold 
in  this  country  for  a 
few  cents  each,  though 
brought  all  the  way 
from  Asia.  Anoth- 
er palm  gives  wax  to 
make  candles.  One 
kind  of  palm  that 
grows  in  Brazil  has 


In  the  blackboard  drawing-  make     fifty  feet  long.       These 
the  trunk  of  the  Cocoanut- 
tree  20  inches  in  heig-ht  (one-     are     USCd      tor     roofing 

houses  there.   Another 


gives  us  its  leaf-stalks  to  make  coarse  brooms. 

19.  The  cocoanut-palm  grows  only  in  warm  countries, 
and  on  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the  tropical 
parts  of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

20.  It  grows  to  the  height  of  about  one  hundred  feet, 
lives  about  one  hundred  years,  and  bears  about  one  hun- 
dred cocoanuts  every  year. 

21.  Its  leaves,  which  are  only  at  the  top  of  the  tree, 
are  about  twenty  feet  in  length. 


— Sugar-maple — Beet-root. 


Leaves:  Palm.  Sugur-Maple.          Chestnut. 

Draw  on  blackboard  the  palm-leaf  2  feet  long-   (one-tenth  the 

full  length),  the  maple  5  inches,  and  each  of  the  others  7 

inches  (full  length). 

If  the  teacher  direct,  other  leaves  may  be  brought  to 
school  by  the  pupils,  who  will  call  the  names  of  the  leaves. 

22.  Another   palm    that   grows    in    Egypt 
gives  us  a  kind  of  gingerbread  all  ready  for  us 
to  eat.     It  is  called  the  Doum  palm. 

23.  Some  trees  in  South  America  and  Af- 
rica are  called  cow-trees,  because  they  give  a 
kind  of  milk. 

24.  Besides  the  trees  that  furnish  bread  and 
milk,  there  are  others  that  yield  a  substance  like 
butter.     Of  these  the  African  tree   seems  the 
best,  for  the  butter  from  it  is  sweet,  white,  and 
firm,  and  will  keep  for  a  year  without  salting. 

25.  Besides    bread,   milk,  and    butter,  plants 
yield  also  sugar.     This  we  have  from  the  sugar- 
cane, from  the  maple-tree,  and  from  the  beet- 
root.     Enough    is   made   from   this    latter   in 
France  to  supply  that  whole  country.     It  is 
just  as  clear  and  sweet  as  the   best   loaf-sugar 
manufactured  from  the  sugar-cane.     From  the 


Suga  r — Molasses — Syrup.,, 

sorghum  we  get  a  sweet  syrup,  and  from  pota- 
toes and  other  vegetables  a  sweet  liquid  called 
glucose  is  obtained,  which  is  sometimes  used  to 
adulterate  sugars  and  syrups. 


Sugar- Cane. 

26.  Sugar-cane  is  raised  from  cuttings  planted   every 
two  or  three  years.     It  was  first  cultivated  in  Asia,  then 
in  Spain  in  the  ninth  century.     Soon  after  the  discovery 
of  America  it  was  introduced  into  Mexico,  the  W^est 
Indies,  and  Brazil. 

27.  Now  it  is  cultivated  in  Louisiana,  Texas,  Flo- 
rida, and  the  other  States  which  border  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  ;  in  Brazil,  Guiana,  Venezuela,  Bolivia,  the 
West  Indies,  Mexico,  and  Central  America ;     in 
China,  Japan,  and  Farther  India ;  in  Egypt,  Libe- 
ria, and  Zanguebar ;  and  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
Society  Islands,  and  other  islands  which  have  a  warm 
climate. 


IP4 


'"  -ct    Poison-plants. 


28.  When  the  sugar-cane  is  cut  it  is  taken  to  the  mill, 
where  it  is  crushed  between  large  rollers.     The  juice  is  then 
heated  in  large  pans  or  boilers  ;   then  it  is  transferred  into 
coolers,  and  the  molasses  is  drained  off  from   the  sugar, 
which  is  of  a  dark  brown  color.     After  this  the  sugar  goes 
through    a   process  called  refining,   which  produces  loaf 
and  refined  sugars  and  syrup. 

29.  Maple  sugar  and  syrup  are  obtained  by  first  boil- 
ing and  then  cooling  the  sap  of  the  sugar-maple  tree.     A 
hole  is  bored  into  the  tree  and  a  tube  is  inserted,  through 
which  the  sap  trickles  out  and  falls  into  a  pail  or  other 
vessel. 

30.  The  plants  that  poison  us  are -very  cu- 
rious.    Some   men  are   dreadfully  poisoned  if 
they  merely  pass  near  some  of  them.      Other 
men    can    handle    these   same    plants   without 
being  at  all  affected   by  them.     There  is  one 
tree  in  the  West  Indies  from  which,  if  the 
rain  drips  upon  a  man's  skin,  huge  blotches  are 
raised  up  immediately.     Some  of  these  poison 
plants    kill    us    quietly,  sending    numbness   all 
through  our    bodies,    and    others  kill   us  with 
terrible  convulsions. 

31.  There  is  one  very  curious  plant  that  poi- 
sons us  or  nourishes  us,  according  to  the  part  we 
take.     It  is  called  the   manioc,  or  cassava.     It 
grows  usually  to  the  height  of  six  or  eight  feet. 
Its   roots  are  very  large,   sometimes  weighing 
thirty  pounds,  and  growing  from  three  to  eight 
in  a  cluster,  usually  from  a  foot  to  two  feet  long. 


Cassava —  Tapioca — Redwood.         1 03 

Like  the  other  parts  of  the  plant,  these  contain  an 
acrid,  milky  juice,  so  poisonous  as  to  cause  death 
in  a  few  minutes ;  but,  as  this  is  owing  to  the 
presence  of  a  poisonous  acid  which  is  quickly 
driven  out  by  heat,  the  juice,  thickened  by  boil- 
ing, forms  an  excellent  sauce  called  cassa-reep. 

32.  This  is  highly  esteemed  in    Guiana,  where  it  is 
used  to   flavor  almost  every  dish,  and  it  is  even  imported 
into  Great  Britain. 

33.  The   root,  grated  or  pounded  into  pulp, 
after  yielding  this  deadly  juice  by  pressure,  is 
dried,  and  forms  the  well-known  cassava-bread ; 
or  else,  heated  and  stirred  on  metal   plates,  it 
forms  the  well-known  tapioca,  which  is  sold  in 
our  stores,  and   served   up   in  our  restaurants 
and  in  our  families  as  tapioca  pudding,  which 
perhaps   some  in  this  class  have  eaten.     Thus 
life  or  death  comes  to  us  from  this  plant,  ac- 
cording to  our  knowing  how  to  use  it. 

34.  In  the  size  of  plants  there  is  wonderful 
variety.     There  are  some  plants  so  small  that  we 
only  know  of  their  existence  by  their  changing 
the  color  of  the  rocks  and  stones  on  which  they 
grow.    To  see  their  stems  and  leaves  it  is  neces- 
sary to  use  the  microscope. 

35.  From    these     small     specimens,     plants 
vary  in   size  up    to   the   giant  trees  of   Cali- 
fornia, that  stand  90  or  100  feet  in  girth  and 
tower  up  to  the  height  of  300  or  400  feet 


jp6  >" ;  ;    far£-^- Quinine — Cinnamon. 

36.  The  trunk  of  one  of  these  trees  when  lying  on  the 
ground  is  thirty  feet  high,  which  is  as  high  as  an  ordinary 
two-story  house. 

37.  One   man  had   the   stump  of    one  of   these   trees 
smoothed  off  and  built  a  house  on  it.     One  of  these  huge 
trees  became  rotten  at  the  heart  and  was  blown  down  in 
a  storm.      The  center  was  cut  away  so  that  a  horse  and 
wagon  could  be  driven  through  it.     They  are  called  the 
Redwood  trees. 

38.  The  bark  of  some  trees  is  used  to  cover 
houses  ;  that  of  the  cork-trees  of  Portugal  and 
Spain  gives  us  all  our  corks  ;  a  certain  tree  from 
Peru  gives  us/ in  its  bark,  the  fever-curing  me- 
dicines called  quinine  and  cinchona.     The  slip- 
pery elm  gives  also  a  medicinal   bark.     Cassia 
and  cinnamon  are  the  bark  of  certain  kinds  of 
laurel  that  grow  in  the   East  Indies.     The 
oak,  the  hemlock,  and  other  trees  enable  us,  by 
means  of  their  bark,  to  make  leather  out  of 
hides  by  a  process  called   tanning.     Boats  also 
are  made  of  bark  ;  chiefly  birch  and  spruce. 

39.  There  are  some  plants  that  seem  offended 
if  you  touch  them,  and  close  up  their  leaves  im- 
mediately.     These  are  called   sensitive   plants. 
The  best  one  comes  from  Brazil.     There  is  a 
plant  of  this  kind  in  our  Southern  States,  but  it 
is  not  so  sensitive. 

40.  There  are  also  plants  that  give  us  soap  besides  the 
palm-soap  which  we  have  already  mentioned.     As  you  are 
walking  along  in  California  you  will  sometimes  see  what 
looks  like  an  old  paint-brush  sticking  up  out  of  the  ground. 


Wheat  and  Corn — Where  Cultivated.  107 


If  you  should  dig  it  up 
you  could  wash  with  its 
root  as  with  a  piece  of 
soap.    There 
are  two  kinds 
of  soap-plant 
found      in 
South  Amer- 
ica. 


There 
is    also 
a  soap- 
plant 
in  Eng- 
land, 
called 
soap- 
wort. 


41.  The 
plants  which 
furnish  us  with 
most  of  our 

food  are  wheat,  Indian  corn, 
rice,  and  potatoes. 

42.  This  country  sends 
immense  quantities  of  wheat 
and  corn  to  Europe  every 
year.  They  are  cultivated 
extensively  in  California 
and  the  States  which  touch 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Missouri  River. 

43.  The  States  which  are  celebrated  for  wheat 
and  corn  are  California,  Illinois,  Indiana, 
Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Michi- 
gan, Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  Mis- 
souri, Kansas,  and  Nebraska. 

44.  Countries  besides  ours  which  are  cele- 


Wheat. 


io8 


Rice — Corn. 


brated  for  wheat  are  Russia,  France,  and 
Austria. 

45.  Rice  is  said  to  be  used  for  food    more 
than  any  other  grain.     Millions  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  China,  India,  and   the   islands   off 
their  coasts  make  it  their  chief  article  of  agri- 
culture and  food. 

46.  It  is  also  said  that  the  excellent  rice  for 
which  the  state  of  South  Carolina  has  long 
been  celebrated  is  due  to  a  few  seeds  left  there 
by  a  vessel  from  the  island  of  Madagascar 
over  two  hundred  years  ago. 

47.  Rice  is  cultivated  also  in  Southern  Eu- 

rope, Africa,  and  the 
warm  countries  of  North 
and  South  America.  A 
wild  kind  of  rice  grows 
in  the  swamps  and  lakes 
of  Minnesota. 

48.  Indian  corn  is,  next 
to   rice,   the    most   used. 
Originating    in   America 
long  before  the  discovery 
of  this  continent  by  Co- 
lumbus, its  cultivation  has 
spread    to   almost    every 
country  in  the  world. 
49.  The  potato  is  the  most  useful  and  the 
most  extensively  cultivated  of  all  vegetables.     It 


Indian  Corn  or  Maize. 


Potato —  Tobacco — Chocolate. 


109 


is  a  native  of  South  America  and  it  still 
grows  wild  in  Peru  and  Chili ;  it  was  first 
taken  to  Spain  and  England  about  three  hun- 
dred years  ago. 

50.  Potatoes  are  more  extensively  cultivated 
in  New  York  than  in  any  other  state  ;  they  are 
largely  used  in  the  manufacture  of  starch. 

51.  There  is  another   plant 
which  is  also  very  extensively 
used  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
and   which,   like    the    potato, 
was  first  found  and  cultivated 
by  the  natives  in  America,  be- 
fore the  discovery  of  America  ; 
it  is  tobacco.      Tobacco  grows 
best   in   warm  countries ;   the 
ancient  Mexicans  raised  large 
crops  of  it. 

52.  Now    it   is   extensively 
cultivated  in  Kentucky,  Vir-          Tobacco, 
ginia,   Pennsylvania,  Ohio,   Tennessee, 
N.  Carolina,  and  Maryland  ;  also  in  Cuba, 
China,  Japan,  Persia,  and  Southern  Europe. 

53.  Chocolate  is  prepared  from  the  seeds  of 
the  chocolate  or  cacao  tree,  which  grows  abun- 
dantly in  Central  and  South  America  and 
the  West  Indies. 

54.  Cacao  is  pronounced   ka-kay'o   or  kay'ko.      The 
cocoa  (ko'ko)or  cocoanut-tree  is  entirely  different  (p,  101). 


no      Tea — How  and  Where  Cultivated. 


The  Preparation  of  Tea* 

55.  Tea   consists   of  the  leaves  of  the  tea- 
plant,  dried  first  in  the  sun,  then  in  heated  pans, 

and  rolled.  The  color 
depends  chiefly  upon 
the  age  of  the  leaves 
when  plucked,  and 
upon  their  preparation. 
Materials  for  coloring 
the  leaves  are  often  used. 

56.  The  plant,  which 
is  kept  pruned  down  to 
the  height  of  about  five 
feet,  grows  abundantly 
of  a  Tea-plant.        *n  China  and  Japan. 


Grapes —  Where  Cultivated.  1 1 1 


57.  It  is  cultivated  to  some  extent  in  the  mild  climates 
of  California  and  the  Gulf  States. 

58.  The  plants  or  shrubs  are  raised  from  seed,  and  are 
picked  from  the  third  to  the  tenth  year. 

59.  Grapes 
flourish  in  coun- 
tries which  have 
warm  or  moder- 
ately warm  cli- 
mates. 

60.  The  cen- 
tral and  south- 
ern   parts    of 
France  and 
Germany,  and 
nearly  all  parts 
of  Spain,  Por- 
tugal,      and 

Italy,  are  especially  noted  for  their  extensive 
vineyards,  and  for  the  great  quantities  of  wine 
made  from  the  grapes. 

6 1.  The   vines   are    mostly  kept    trimmed 
down,  and  not  allowed  to  grow  as  high  as  a 
man's  head. 

62.  Wines  have  received  their  names  from  the  places 
where  they  are  made  or  shipped  from,  or  where  the  grapes 
are  cultivated ;  as,  Champagne  and  Burgundy  wines,  from 
ancient  provinces  in  France  ;  Rhine  wines,  from  the  river 
Rhine ;  port  wine,  from  the  city  of  Oporto  (in  Portu- 


A  Vineyard— Gathering-  Grapes. 


112  Vineyards — Grapes — Wines.    . 

gal),  whence  it  is  shipped ;  Bordeaux  wine  (bor-dd\  from 
Bordeaux,  the  great  wine  port  of  France  j  Madeira  wine, 
from  the  Madeira  Islands,  northwest  of  Africa;  Sherry 
wine,  from  Jerez,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Spain  ;  Cali- 
fornia wines,  from  the  State  of  California. 


Taking  Grapes  to  the  Wine-press. 

63.  In  the  vintage  season,  or  when  the  grapes 
are  ripe9  men,  women,  and  children  go  into  the 
vineyards  and  pluck  off  the  bunches,  filling 
their  boxes  or  baskets,  which  are  emptied  into 
huge  tubs.  When  these  are  full,  they  are  hauled 
in  carts  by  oxen  to  the  press-house,  where  the 


Wine —  Grapes —  Cu  rra  nts.  113 

juice  is  pressed  out  and  left  to  ferment,  thus 
producing  wine. 

64.  Vineyards   cover   about  700,000  acres  of  land  in 
France,  and  the  value  of  the  wine  produced  there  some- 
times exceeds  that  of  the  whole  cotton  crop  of  the  United 
States,  which  is  about  $200,000,000  annually. 

65.  Considerable  wine  is  manufactured  in  the  States  of 
California,  Ohio,  New  York,  and  Missouri. 

66.  Wine  is  made  also  from  currants  and  berries. 

67.  New  vines  are  raised  from  cuttings  of  the  previous 
year's  wood. 

68.  Brandy  is  made  from  wine  by  distilling  it,  which  is 
done  by  evaporation  and  condensation.     (See  page  18.) 

69.  Grapes  contain  considerable  sugar  (about  a  fourth 
is  sugar),  which,  when  fermented,  produces  alcohol. 

70.  From  Spain  we  get  our  raisins,  which 
are  grapes  dried  and  prepared ;  and  you  will  be 
surprised  to  hear  that  the  currants  which  you 
have  eaten  in  cakes  and  puddings  are  not  the 
fruit  of  what  we  call  currant  bushes,  but  really 
a  very  small   kind   of  grape  which   grows  in 
Greece,  and  is  prepared  there  for  shipment  to 
the  United  States  and  other  countries. 

71.  Besides  grapes,  the  countries  of  Southern 
Europe   raise   grain  and  vegetables   in    abun- 
dance ;  even  between  the  rows  of  vines  you  may 
see  wheat,  or   corn,  or  beet,  or   other   plants 
growing.     There   are   also   great   orchards   or 
groves  of  mulberry  trees,  which  feed  the  silk- 


114  Or  a  nges — Apples —  Cotton. 

worm  ;  of  olive  trees,  from  the  fruit  of  which 
olive  or  sweet  oil  is  made ;  and  of  orange  and 
lemon  trees. 

72.  Orange   trees   require   a  warm    climate. 
They  are  killed  by  severe  frost.     In  the  United 
States  they  are  cultivated  in  Florida,  Louisi- 
ana,   Texas,    and   in   the   southern   part   of 
California. 

73.  Most  of  the  oranges  sold  in  the  United 
States  are  from  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and  from  the  West 
Indies. 

74.  In   cooler  countries,   apple   trees    grow 
abundantly.     Introduced  into  America  by  the 
early  settlers  of  New   England,  the  apple  is 
more  extensively  used  in  this  country  than  any 
other  fruit.     Large  quantities  are  sent  to  the 
cider-mill,  pressed   between  rollers,  and   their 
juice  converted  into  cider. 

75.  Of  all  the  plants,  one  of  the  most  useful 
and  valuable  is  cotton.     It  grows  only  in  tem- 
perate and  warm   climates,   especially   in   our 
Southern   States.     Mississippi,  and   the   other 
States  which  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
yield  the  most. 

76.  It  grows  from  seeds,  and  bears  a  pod  or 
boll,  which  bursts  open  in  the  autumn  from  the 


Cotton — How  Prepared  and  Where  Sent.  1 1 5 

pressure  of  the  soft,  white,  downy  substance 
within,  called  cotton.  This  is  picked  out  of 
the  shell  or  boll,  and  sent  to  a  mill  to  be  ginned, 
or  separated  from  the  seeds.  It  is  then  pressed 
and  packed  in  bales,  and  sent  to  the  cotton 
mills  to  be  spun  into  thread,  then  woven  into 
muslin,  calico,  etc. 

77.  Large  quantities  are  sent  to  the  cotton 
mills  of  Massachusetts,  New  Hampshire,  Rhode 
Island,  and  other  States. 

78.  About  one-half  of  the  annual  crop  is  sent 
to  Europe,  principally  to  England,  where  it  is 
manufactured    into   cloth, 

then  shipped  to  China,  Ja- 
pan, South  America,  and 
other  places,  and  sold  or 
exchanged  for  tea,  silk, 
fancy  articles,  coffee,  India- 
rubber,  etc. 


Shipping  Cotton  from  New  Orleans. 


116 


Cotton —  Where  cidtivated. 


A  Cotton  Field.— Picking  Cotton. 

79,  Now,  however,  the  American  manufac- 
turers are  gaining  a  market  for  their  goods  in 
each  of  those  places. 

80.  The  Southern  States  produce  about  5,000,000  bales 
of  cotton  every  year,  worth  about  $200,000,000. 

8 1.  Cotton  is  cultivat- 
ed also  in  Egypt,    India, 
and   the   warm   parts    of 
South  America. 

82.  The    first   cotton 
mill  in  the  United  States 
was     built     in     Rhode 
Island. 

83.  The    city     which 
sends   away  the  greatest 
quantities  of  cotton  every 
year  is  New  Orleans, 
and  that  which   receives 

Cotton-boll.  the  most  is  Liverpool. 


Flax — Linen — Linseed.  1 1 7 

84.  Besides  cotton,  there  is 
another   plant  which  is   very 
useful   in   furnishing  us  with 
material  for  clothing.     What 
is  that?     Flax,  from   which 
linen  is  made. 

85.  Linen  is  a  kind  of  cloth 
made  from  a  material  obtained 
from    the    plant    called    flax. 
This  grows  to  the  height  of  two 
or  three  feet.     It  has  slender 
stalks,  which  are  covered  with 

a  bark  or  skin  containing  fibers  or  a  thread-like 
substance.  Flax  grows  from  seed  sown  in  the 
spring ;  it  is  pulled  out  by  the  roots  in  sum- 
mer, and  after  drying,  soaking,  scutching  or 
beating,  and  other  processes,  the  fibers  are 
separated  from  the  other  portions  of  the  bark, 
spun  into  thread,  and  woven  into  cloth  called 
linen,  cambric,  lawn,  tablecloths,  towels,  etc. 

86.  The  seeds  of  the  flax  are  called  linseed. 
Like  those  of  the  cotton  plant,  they  yield  a 

useful  oil  and  a  substance  which  is  made  into 
food  for  cattle. 

87.  Linen  was  known  to  the  ancient  Egyptians  many 
hundred  years  ago,  who  exported  it  to  Greece  and  Rome 

88.  Ireland  is  celebrated  for  its  fine  linen. 


1 1 8  India-rubber — How  obtained  and  used. 

89.  The  cultivation   of  flax   and  the  manufacture  of 
linen  are  carried  on  extensively,  also,  in  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  Holland,  France,  Belgium,  Russia,  and  several 
States  of  the  Union. 

90.  The   city   of   Belfast,   in   Ireland,  manufactures 
more"  linen  goods  than  any  other  city  in  the  world. 

91.  You  have  learned  something  about  the 
two  plants  which  are  celebrated  for  furnishing 
materials  for  clothing — cotton  and  linen.   There 
is  another  plant,  or  rather  a  large  tree,  which 
yields  a  very  useful  substance  ;  not  fruit,  nor  its 
seeds,  nor  its  bark,  nor  its  roots,  but  its  sap. 
In  that  respect  it  resembles  the  sugar  maple 
tree,  but  we  cannot  eat  any  part  of  the  tree. 
We  wear  articles  made  from  it,  yet  it  cannot  be 
spun  or  woven  like  cotton  or  linen.     Do  you 
know  what  tree  it  is  ?      The  India-rubber  tree. 

92.  India-rubber,  or  Caoutchouc  (pronounced 
koo-chook7),  is  the  milky  sap  of  that  tree.    Cuts 
or  gashes  are    made  in   the  bark,  into  which 
cups  are  inserted  for  collecting  the  sap.     This 
is  afterwards  hardened  by  heat,  the  smoke  giving 
it   a   dark   color.      It   is   further  hardened  by 
sulphur. 

93.  Boots,  shoes,  car-springs,  and   a  great  variety  of 
articles   are  made  of  it  in  Connecticut,  Massachu- 
setts, New  York,  and  New  Jersey. 

94.  The  India-rubber  brought  to  the  United  States  is 
mostly  from  Brazil  and  Central  America. 


Turpentine — Pitch — Ivory.  119 

95.  There  is  another  tree  which  is  valuable 
for  its  sap,  called  turpentine.     This  is  obtained 
in  a  similar  manner;  when  distilled  (p.  113),  it 
yields  rosin  or  resin  and  the  oil  or  spirits  of 
turpentine,  both  of  which  are  used  in  the  man- 
ufacture  of  varnish,   and   for   other  purposes. 
What  is  the  name  of  the  tree,  and  where  does 
it  grow  ?      The  pine,  which  grows  extensively 
in  the  sandy  soil  of  North  Carolina  and  the 
neighboring  States.     It  grows  also  in  other 
parts  of  North  America  and  in  Europe. 

96.  Some  of  these  trees  are  cut  down  and 
their  roots  and  branches  piled  up,  covered  with 
turf  or  earth,  and  set  on  fire,  to  make  charcoal 
and  tar ;  the  latter  is  the  sap,  which  runs  into  a 
large  iron  vessel  underneath  the  pile,  and  is 
conducted  by  pipes  into  casks  near  by.     This 
constitutes  an  important  occupation  in  North 
Carolina,  Canada,  and  Sweden. 

97.  Pitch,  which  is  very  useful  in  ship-building,  is  made 
from  tar. 

98.  What   is   ivory  ?     A    hard,   white  sub- 
stance which  forms  the  tusks  of  the  elephant. 
There  is  a  kind  of  tree  growing  along  some  of 
the   streams   in   the   northern   part   of    South 
America  which   is   called   the  vegetable-ivory 
tree;  its  seeds  or  nuts  contain  a  juice  which 
hardens  into  a  substance  resembling  ivory. 


1 2  o       Ma  hog  a  ny — Rosewood — Ebony. 

99.  Those   trees   which    yield    wood    used 
chiefly  in   the   manufacture  of  pianos,  boxes, 
furniture,  etc.,  are  the  mahogany  and  rosewood, 
which  come  from  Brazil,  Central  America, 
and  the  West  Indies.     Some  of  these  trees 
are  sawed  into  layers  about  one-eighth  of  an 
inch  in  thickness,  called  veneer,  which  is  used 
to  cover  over  cheaper  woods. 

100.  Several  thousand  dollars  have  been  paid 
for  the  logs  from  a  single  tree.     The  forests  on 
the  coast  of  Honduras  supply  large  quantities 
of  mahogany  ;  but  the  best  sorts,  called  Spanish 
mahogany,  are  found  in  Cuba  and  St.  Do- 
mingo. 

0 oi.  The  first  use  known  to  have  been  made  of  mahog- 
any was  about  300  years  ago,  by  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  who 
repaired  his  ships  with  it,  at  Trinidad,  an  island  off  the 
coast  of  Venezuela. 

102.  Box-wood  is  a  hard,  smooth  wood  used  by  wood- 
engravers  ;  it  comes  from  countries  bordering  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

103.  Ebony  is  a  hard,  black  wood,  used  for  inlaid  and 
other  ornamental  work ;  the  tree  grows  in  Madagascar 
and  Ceylon. 

104.  The  date-palm  grows  abundantly  in  Persia,  Ara- 
bia, Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Tunis,  Algeria,  Morocco, 
and  in  the  oases  of  Sahara,  or  the  Great  Desert.     Its 
fruit  forms  the  chief  article  of  food   in   many   parts   of 
these  countries.     An  oasis  is  a  fertile  spot  in  a  desert. 


Spices — Figs — Prunes —  Cranberries.   121 


Banyan  Tree. 


105.  The  banyan 
tree  is  remarkable 
for  its  way  of 
spreading  itself. 
This  is  done  by  its 
branches,  which 
shoot  downward, 
take  root  in  the 

ground,  and  become  trunks.     It  is  a 

native  of  India. 

1 06.  The  trees  which  yield  cloves,  nutmegs,  mace,  ginger, 
cinnamon,  and  black  pepper,  grow  in  Java,  Sumatra, 
Ceylon,  the  Spice  and  other  islands  south  and  southeast 
of  Asia ;  some  of  them  grow  on  the  mainland  also. 

107.  Figs,   olives,   pomegranates,    and   almonds   grow 
abundantly  in  the  countries  which  surround  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea.     The  dried  figs  used  in  the  United  States 
come  mostly  from  Turkey.     What  countries  in  Europe 
border  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea?  (p.  160).    What  coun- 
tries in  Asia?  (p.  174).     In  Africa  ?  (p.  200). 

1 08.  Bananas,   pineapples,  guava,   and   tamarinds,  as 
well  as  oranges  and  lemons,  abound  in  the  West  Indies. 

109.  Prunes  are  plums  raised  and  prepared  in  France. 

no.  Cranberries  grow  on  a  little  running  shrub,  in  low, 
flat,  sandy  districts,  which  may,  like  rice-fields,  be  flooded ; 
covering  for  a  while  the  whole  surface  with  water,  and 


122         Opium — Camphor — Rhubarb, 

making  the  meadows  appear  like  ponds.     They  are  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  eastern  part  of  New  Jersey. 

in.  We  have  before  mentioned  certain  plants  the  use 
of  which  is  injurious  to  health.  There  are  others.  In 
India,  along  the  Ganges  River,  thousands  and  thou- 
sands of  acres  of  land  are  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of  a 
plant,  on  account  of  the  juice  or  sap  taken  from  its  seed- 
vessels  ;  the  plant  is  called  the  white  poppy.  The  juice  is 
called  opium,  and  it  is  extensively  used  by  the  Chinese, 
who  both  smoke  it  and  eat  it  for  the  peculiar,  dreamy,  and 
quieting,  or  rather  deadening,  effect  which  it  produces  on 
the  feelings.  Its  use  is  very  injurious  to  both  body  and 
mind. 

112.  From    opium,   the    drugs   called  laudanum   and 
morphia  or  mor'phine  are  derived.     These  are  often  pre- 
scribed by  physicians  to  allay  pain  or  to  produce  sleep. 
The  opium  used  in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe  is 
mostly  imported  from  Turkey  in  Asia  and  Persia. 

113.  There  is  another  plant  which  yields  a  substance 
called  hasheesh  or  hashish ;  this  also  produces  stupor  and 
dreaminess,  and  is  extensively  used  in  Asiatic  countries. 
The  plant  is  hemp,  from  the  fibres  of  which,  rope,  bag- 
ging, etc.,  are  made ;  it  is  raised  chiefly  in  Russia. 

114.  Camphor  is  a  substance  obtained  from  the  wood 
and  bark  of  the  camphor  trees  of  China,  Japan,  For- 
mosa, Sumatra,  and  Borneo. 

115.  Rhubarb  is  the  root  of  a  plant  which -grows  in 
Central  Asia,  whence  it  is   sent  to  Turkey  and  Rus- 
sia, and  then  exported. 

1 1 6.  Castor  oil  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of  the  castor- 
oil  plant,  which  grows  in  Africa,  America,  and  Europe. 


Sap ;    how  obtained  and  supplied.      123 

1 1 7.  All  of  you  have  seen  an  apple  tree,  and 
know  the  various  forms  of  food  into  which  its 
fruit  can   be  made;  but  do  you  know  where 
and  how  the  tree  gets  the  food  which  it  lives 
upon  ?     Let  us  talk  about  this. 

1 1 8.  The  substances  which  supply  it  with  its 
food  or  nourishment  are  in  the  ground  and  the 
air. 

119.  The    principal    substances    are    called    carbon, 
hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

120.  Many  thousands  of  little  mouths  in  the 
roots  are  ever  on  the  alert  for  these  substances, 
which   go   to    make   wood,   leaves,  and   fruit ; 
taking  them  in  with  the  water  in  the  soil,  and 
sending  sap  upward  to  every  branch,  twig,  and 
leaf. 

121.  The  leaves,  too,  are  at  work  all  day  long, 
breathing  in  through  their  countless  pores,  or 
mouths,  moisture  from   the   atmosphere,  and, 
with  the  aid  of  sunlight,  changing  and  prepar- 
ing the  sap.     Then  the  sap  returns  toward  the 
roots,  supplying  on  its  way  what  is  needed  for 
every  part  of  the  tree. 

122!  The  roots,  trunk,  and  branches,  contain 
multitudes  of  little  tubes  or  pipes,  through 
which  the  sap  flows ;  one  set  for  the  rising  sap, 
and  another  set  for  the  returning  sap.  The  sap 


124 


Ages  of  trees — Exogens. 


is  to  a  tree  what  blood  is  to  an  animal,  and  both 
the  sap  and  blood  are  always  in  circulation. 

123.  Leaves  not  only  inhale  (breathe  in)  moisture,  but 
they  also   exhale   (breathe  out;  it.     Some  of  the  water 
which   has   brought  up   the  nourishment   to   the   leaves, 
being  no  longer  required,  is  thus  exhaled  or  evaporated 
through  the  pores  of  the  leaves. 

124.  Does  the  apple  tree  enlarge  on  the  in- 
side, or  outside  ;  by  the  rising,  or  the  returning 
sap?      The  increase  is  on  the  outside  of  the 
hard  wood,  or  just  along  the  inner  bark,  and 
is  supplied  by  the  returning  sap. 

125.  Every  year  a  layer  is  added;  therefore, 
when  such  a  tree  is  sawed  across  the  trunk,  the 

layers  will  appear  like 
rings  and  show  the  age 
of  the  tree. 

126.  In  counting  the  rings, 
the  pith  (i)  and  the  bark  (4), 
belonging  to  the  first  year's 
growth,   are   not    to    be   in- 

Section  of  an  Exog-en  of  two      Cmded. 

years'  growth.  ,_  ,  .    ,      . 

127.  Trees  which  thus 

grow  by  additions  to  the  outside  of  the  hard 
wood,  or  externally,  are  called  exogens  (ex'-o- 
jens) ;   such   include  apple,  pear,  maple,  elm, 
and  many  other  kinds  of  trees. 

1 28.  Trees  and  plants  which  increase  by  inter- 
nal growth,  showing  no  layers  or  rings  like  those 


Endogens — Seeds —  Cu  t l  tings.  125 


above  named,  are  called  en'-do-gens^  such    as 
palm-trees,  Indian  corn, 
sugar-cane,      wheat, 
grasses,  etc. 

129.  The  newest  wood  of 
exogens   is    just    under  the 
bark,  while  that  of  endogens 
is  in  the  center. 

130.  Endogenous  trees  and 
plants  just  described  should 

not  be  mistaken  for  indigenous  (in-dij '-e-nus),  which  means 
those  which  are  native  of  a  certain  country  or  climate. 


Section  of  an  Endog-en. 


Exog-en.  Endogen. 

131.  Trees  and  plants  are  multiplied  in  various 
ways :  by  seeds,  as  acorns,  grain  and  cotton-seed ; 
by  cuttings,  as  the  grape-vine,  sugar-cane,  and 


126          How   Vegetation  is  extended. 


geraniums;  by  dividing  or  separating  roots, 
tubers,  and  bulbs,  as  the  strawberry,  potato, 
dahlia,  and  hyacinth ;  and  by  grafting. 

132.  Grafting  is  the  insertion  of  a  cutting  or  bud  of  one 
plant  into  a  branch  or  stem  of  another. 
This  is  often  done  with  rose  and  fruit 
trees. 

J33-  Vegetation  is  extended 
over  the  land  not  only  by  men, 
but  also  by  the  winds,  streams, 
ocean-currents,  birds,  bees,  etc. 


Seed  of  a  Maple  Tree,  Full  Size. 

1 34.  Many  seeds  are  provided 
with  a  kind  of  wing  or  some 
light  substance,  and  are  scat- 


seed  of  the  Thistle. 


Pern,  with  Spore.. 


tered  far  and  wide  by  the  winds, 
as  those  of  the  ash,  elm,  and 
maple  trees,  the  thistle  and  the 

dandelion. 


How  a  Maple  tree  grows. 


127 


135.  Plants  are  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
flowering  and  flowerless.  Flowering  plants  and  trees 
produce  seeds,  each  containing  an  embryo  or  undevel- 
oped plant.  Flowerless  plants,  such  as  ferns,  have  spores 
instead  of  seeds.  These  appear  like  brown  dust  or  spots 
on  the  leaves.  Try  to  bring  a  fern  leaf  with  spores  on  it 
to  your  teacher. 


How  a  Maple  Tree  begins  to  grow. 

136.  The  origin  or  beginning  of  a  plant  is  a  seed,  which 
is  a  wonderful  combination  of  all  the  parts  of  that  plant. 

137.  Placed  in  the  ground,  the  seed  sends  down  its  roots 
to  find  food  or  nourishment  and  also  to  hold  the  plant 
firmly  in  its  place.     Then  the  stem  appears  above  ground. 
When    the   plant   is  grown   and   perfect,    it   consists    of 
these  five   parts :    root,  stem   or   trunk,   leaves,   flowers, 
and  iruit.     You  may  bring  some  specimens  of  seeds,  and 
be  prepared  to  mention  the  name  of  the  tree  or  plant  to 
which  each  belongs. 


128   How  an  Oak  grows  from  an  Acorn. 


138.  At  the  end  of  every  little  root  is  a  kind  of  mouth  • 
and,  as  different  kinds  of  plants  require  different  kinds  of 
nourishment,  these  little  roots,  which  appear  like  bunches 
of  threads,  keep  spreading  themselves  in  the  ground 
in  search  of  the  particular  substances  just  suit- 
ed to  the  plant  which  it  is  their  duty  to  supply. 


139.  So  you   may  consider  the  roots   and 
their  mouths  to  be  the  storehouse  and  food- 
gatherers  ;  the  long,  narrow  pipes  in  the  stem 
or  trunk,  the  channels  or  means  of  convey- 
ance;    and    the    leaves    to    be    a    kind    of 
stomach   or    manufactory   for   preparing    the 
food   and   making  it   fit   for   use. 
That   is,    all    parts   of   a   tree   or 
plant  act  in   harmony   with   each 
other  for  some  good  purpose. 


140.   There    are   different 
kinds  of  roots :  ist,  those  of 
forest  trees,  which  extend  in 
various  directions  and  some- 
times  to   greater    distances 
than    the    trunk  and   its 
branches ;  2d,  those  which 
appear  like   a  bunch   of 
threads     or   fibers,     and 
which  are  called  fibrous, 
as  those  of  the  hyacinth 
and   grasses ;    3d,   those 
associated    with    tubers,      How  an  Oak  begins  to  grow. 

like  the  potato,  and  which  are  called  fleshy  roots ;  4th, 
those  which  taper  downward  and  send  out  fibers  from 
their  sides,  like  the  carrot  and  parsnip. 


How    Trees  differ  from  each  other.    129 


141.  Roots  are  divided  also  into  different 
kinds,  according  to  their  length  of  life ;  into 
annual,  or  those  which  live  but  one  year  ;  bi- 
en'ni-al,  those  which  live  but  two  years ;  and 
per-en 'ni-al,  those  which  live  several  years, 

142.  To  which  of  these  divisions  does  a 
morning-glory  belong  ?     A  rose  bush  ?     A 
pear  tree  ?      A   currant   bush  ?      A   fern  ? 
Beets  ?   A  cotton  plant  ?   Grasses  ?    Indian 
corn  ?     Carjots  ?     Butter-cups  ? 

Some  trees,  like  the  oak,  cedar,  pine  and 
olive,  live  for  centuries. 

143.  Trees   differ   also   in   their 
stems  or   trunks;    some  grow  up 
for    a    short     distance    from    the 

ground  and  then  Hyacinth, 
branch  out  in  every  direction, 
like  the  apple  tree ;  while 
others  grow  up  almost  in  a 
straight  line,  ten  times  as  high 
as  any  apple  tree  ;  such  are  the 
mammoth  trees  of  California, 
the  eucalyptus*  trees  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  the  cocoanut  trees 
of  Africa  and  Asia. 

The  trees  just  named  are  remark- 
able for  the  great  distance  between 
the  ground  and  their  lower  branches. 
The  cocoanut  and  other  palms  have 
all  their  leaves  at  the  top. 

How  Corn  grows.  *  lu-ka-lip'tus.] 


130  About  Leaves. 

144.  Trees  which  lose  their  leaves  in  autumn 
are  called  de-cid'u-ous,  which  means  falling  off. 
Those  which   retain  their  leaves  through  the 
winter,  or  until  new  leaves  appear,  are  called 
evergreen.     An  apple  tree  is  deciduous,  and  a 
hemlock  i°  evergreen. 

145.  Leaves    differ   from    each    other   very 
greatly  in  their  size,  shape,  color,  and  construc- 
tion ;   some  have  smooth  edges,  while    others 
have  saw-like  edges ;  some  are  long  and  narrow, 
like  those  of  Indian  corn  and  the  sugar  cane, 
while  others  are  broad  and  round,  like  the  cab- 
bage  and  begonia.      Leaves   differ  from  each 
other  also  in  regard  to  the  number  and  arrange- 
ment of  their  veins. 


Leaf  Veins.  Veinlets.  Veinulets. 

146.  VEINS. — The  first  leaf  above  shows  its 
stem  or  foot-stalk,  called  its  pet'-i-ole  (/>),  from 
which,  at  the  base  of  the  leaf,  spring  its  veins, 
five  in  number. 


Leaf  Veins,    Veinlets  >  etc.  131 

147.  VEINLETS.  —  The    next    shows    small 
branches  from  the  veins,  called  veinlets. 

148.  At  the  end  of  some  words,  let  signifies  small;  as 
leaf/<?/,  a  small  leaf;   is/<?/,   a   small   island;    stream/,?/,   a 
small  stream ;  root/<?/,  a  small  root ;  and  vein/*?/,  a  small 
vein. 

149.  VEINULETS,   NET-VEINED. — The   third 
shows  finer  branches  from  the  veinlets,  called 
veinulets.     Such  a  leaf  is  said  to  be  net-veined. 
With  few  exceptions,  the  leaves  of  exogens  are 
net-veined. 


Mid- Veined.       Parall el- Veined.      Pork  Veined.    Serrated. 

150.  MID-VEINED. — Leaves  having  but  one 
large  vein,  which  is  the  continuation  of  the 
petiole  (/*),  and  runs  from  the  base  (K)  of  the 
leaf  to  the  apex   (a)  through  the  middle,  are 
called  mid-veined. 

151.  PARALLEL-VEINED. — The  veinlets  which 
branch  from  the  mid-vein  are  parallel  with  each 
other;    the    leaves   are    therefore   said   to   be 


132  Leaves — Their  Shapes,  etc. 

parallel-veined.     The  leaves  of  most  endogens 
are  parallel-veined,  as  those  of  corn  and  lilies. 

152.  FORK-VEINED.  —  Leaves    whose    veins 
divide  and  resemble  forks  are  called  fork-veined. 

153.  SERRATE.  —  Leaves  having   a   saw-like 
edge,  the  teeth  pointing  forwards,  are  called 
serrated.     Serra  means  saw. 

1 54.  A  FEATHER-VEINED  leaf  is  one  in  which 
its  veinlets  branch  off  from  the  mid-vein,  thus 
resembling  a  feather. 


Hand-Shaped.  Finger-Shaped.  Gashed. 

155.  A  HAND-SHAPED  leaf  is  so  called  from 
its  resemblance  to  the  palm  of  the  hand  and 
fingers. 

156.  A  FINGER-SHAPED  leaf  is  one    whose 
parts  or  divisions,  called  lobes,  are  more  sepa- 
rated from  each  other  than  those  of  the  hand- 
shaped  leaf,  and  appear  like  fingers  without  the 
palm  of  the  hand.     When  the  leaf  appears  as 
if  cut  with  scissors,  it  is  said  to  be  GASHED. 


Leaves — Simple  and  Compound.       133 


Shield-Formed.  Compound  and  Trifoliate. 

157.  A  SHIELD-FORMED  leaf  is  one  which  has 
its  veins  radiating  from  the  petiole  at  or  near 
the  center  of  the  leaf  instead  of  its  base. 

158.  SIMPLE  LEAVES. — The  twelve  leaves  just  described 
are  called  simple  leaves,  because  only  one  leaf  is  attached 
to  each  petiole. 

159.  The  GASHED  LEAF  is  but  one  leaf,  cut  or  divided, 
and  is  therefore  a  simple  leaf ;  such  also  are  the  finger- 
shaped  and  hand-shaped  leaves. 

1 60.  COMPOUND  LEAVES — TRIFOLIATE. — When  a  petiole 
bears  two  or  more  distinct  pieces  or  blades,  the  blades  are 
called  leaflets,  and  the  group  is  called  a  compound  leaf. 
Three   leaflets  together,  or   near  together,  on  the  same 
petiole,  are  called  tri-fo'-li-ate  (fri,  three),  as  the  clover. 

161.  [The  pupils  may  collect  from  the  woods  or  gardens 
as  many  of  these  varieties  of  leaves  as  they  can;  then 
classify  them  and  name  their  different  parts ;  or  describe 
each  leaf  as  the  teacher  holds  it  up  ;  or  attach  one  or  more 
leaves  to  a  piece  of  paper,  write  .a  short  description  of 
each,  similar  to  that  on  the  following  page,  and  hand  it  to 
the  teacher.] 


134  Exercises  in  Composition. 

[MODEL.] 


162.  Besides  this,  the  pupils  may  write  about  any  tree 
or  plant,  as  a  lesson  in  spelling  and  composition. 

163.  Seeds    differ   very    greatly   from   each 
other.     Some  are  inside  of  the  fruit,  like  those 
of  the  apple  ;    some  are  on   the  outside,  like 
those  of  the  strawberry  ;    others  are  together, 
forming  the  fruit,  like  those  of  the  blackberry. 

164.  .Some  seeds  furnish  us  with  flour,  from 
which   our  bread  is  made,  as  wheat;   or  with 


About  Seeds. 


135 


Violet  Seed  in  Capsule. 


Strawberry  and  Seed. 


Acorns  (Seeds  of 
the  Oak). 


Cone  of  Hemlock  Tree,        Peas  in  Pod.    Cone  of  Pine  Tree. 

meal,  as  Indian  corn  ;   while  many  others  are 
not  used  for  food  in  any  form. 

165.  Some  seeds  are  enclosed  in  a  pod, 
capsule,  or  case,  like  those  of  peas,  pansies, 
violets,  and  lady-slippers  ;  while  others  consist 
of  a  kernel  and  hard  shell,  like  the  hickory  nut. 


136  Review  in  Botany. 


1 66.  The  wonderful  way  in  which  the  beautiful  flowers 
are  increased  in  numbers  and  brilliancy  by  the  habits  and 
industry  of  bees,  etc.,  you  will   find  mentioned   in  the 
chapter  on  INSECTS. 

167.  To  the  pupils :  You  should  observe  and  examine, 
when   rambling   in   the   woods   and   fields,  some  of   the 
various   plants,   roots,   leaves,   flowers,   fruits   and   seeds 
which  you  see.     You  will  thus  be  easily  led  to  the  study 
of  that  delightful  science  called  BOTANY,  to  which  your 
attention  has  been  directed  in  this  chapter. 

NOTE. — A  new  and  very  interesting  work  on  Botany  has  been 
prepared  by  Professors  Wood  and  Steele,  published  by  A.  S. 
13arnes  &  Co.,  from  which  several  illustrations  in  this  chapter 
have  been  taken. 

REVIEW    OF   CHAPTER   XII. 

Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  trees  and  plants. 

Which  are  the  most  useful  for  food  ?  For  clothing  ?  For 
building  houses  and  ships?  For  furniture? 

What  States  and  Countries  are  celebrated  for  wheat  ?  Corn  ? 
Rice  ?  Are  these  plants  annual,  biennial,  or  perennial  ? 

How  is  wheat  raised?  Corn?  Rice?  To  what  order  of 
plants  do  they  belong  ?  Grasses.  What  general  name  is  given  to 


Review  in  Botany.  137 

their  seeds  or  fruit  ?  Grain  or  Ce're-als.  What  other  plants  pro- 
duce grain  ?  Rye,  oats  and  barley.  What  other  very  useful  plant 
belongs  to  the  order  of  grasses  ?  Sugar-cane. 

Which  of  these  plants  require  the  warmest  climate  ?  Sugar- 
cane and  rice.  What  State  is  celebrated  for  sugar  ?  Where  else  is 
sugar  largely  produced  ?  In  South  America  and  the  West  Indies. 

When  wheat  is  ripe,  what  is  done  with  it  ?  //  is  cut,  threshed, 
and  ground  into  flour ;  then  the  flour  is  mixed  with  water  and  a 
little  yeast,  forming  dough  ;  after  the  dough  swells  or  rises,  it  is  made 
into  loaves,  put  into  the  oven  and  baked. 

Where  is  rice  the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants  ? 

When  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley  are  threshed,  what  are  their 
stems  or  stalks  called  ?  Straw. 

Which  is  the  most  useful  garden  vegetable?  The  potato. 
Where  is  it  indigenous?  How  is  it  cultivated?  What  useful 
substance  is  made  from  the  potato  ?  Starch. 

Where  is  the  sugar-cane  cultivated  ?  How  is  sugar  obtained 
from  it?  What  is  molasses?  From  what  tree  is  a  substance 
obtained  which  is  manufactured  into  sugar  ?  From  what  garden 
vegetable  ?  How  is  sugar  obtained  from  the  maple  tree? 

What  drinks  are  made  from  trees,  plants  and  vines,  or  their 
products? 

How  and  from  what  part  of  the  tea-plant  is  the  drink  made? 
Of  the  coffee-plant?  Of  the  chocolate  tree  ?  From  what  is  wine 
made?  Brandy?  Cider?  Raisins?  Dried  currants?  What 
countries  are  celebrated  for  the  production  of  tea?  Coffee? 
Chocolate  ?  Wine  ?  Raisins  ? 

What  liquor  is  made  from  grain  by  distillation  ?  Whiskey. 
From  the  malt  of  barley  or  other  grain  ?  Beer.  How  is  malt 
obtained  ?  By  steeping  the  grain,  and  then  drying  it. 

What  plants  yield  substances  from  which  people  manufacture 
clothing  ?  How  is  cotton  obtained  ?  How  manufactured  ?  What 
does  flax  yield  ?  How  is  linen  obtained  from  flax  ?  What  oils  are 
obtained  from  the  seeds  of  these  two  plants?  What  States  pro- 
duce the  most  cotton  ?  Where  else  is  cotton  cultivated  ?  Where 
is  cotton  mostly  manufactured  into  goods  ?  In  England  and  the 
Northern  States,  especially  New  England. 

Are  cotton  and  flax  annual  or  perennial  ?  Is  tea  an  annual  or 
a  perennial  plant? 


138  Review  in  Botany. 

What  trees  are  valuable  for  their  sap  ?  India-rubber,  sugar- 
maple,  and  the  pine. 

What  is  made  from  the  sap  of  the  India-rubber  tree?  Of  the 
sugar-maple  tree?  Of  the  pine  tree?  Where  is  India-rubber 
largely  produced  ?  Turpentine  and  tar? 

What  tree  is  valuable  for  medicine  obtained  from  its  bark  ? 
Where  does  that  tree  grow  ?  Mention  some  other  plants  which 
yield  medicines.  From  what  tree  is  bark  obtained  that  is  used 
in  tanning  leather  ?  Hemlock.  Is  it  a  deciduous,  or  an  evergreen 
tree? 

What  trees  are  very  valuable  for  their  wood  used  in  making 
pianos,  etc. 

Where  do  mahogany  and  rosewood  trees  grow  ? 

How  are  these  woods  used  ? 

Mention  some  other  ornamental  woods. 

Mention  the  trees  which  are  valuable  for  their  fruits?  Where 
do  oranges  grow?  Bananas?  Olives?  Cocoanuts  ?  Dates? 
Pineapples?  Lemons?  Cloves  and  nutmegs ?  What  is  obtained 
from  olives? 

What  plant,  although  yielding  no  food,  drink,  clothing,  medi- 
cine, shelter,  or  ornament,  is  used  very  extensively  in  nearly  every 
country  in  the  world  ?  Tobacco.  Where  is  it  extensively  cul- 
tivated ? 

Mention  some  poison  plants.  Which  produces  opium  ? 
Where  is  it  mostly  cultivated  ?  Mostly  used  ? 

Upon  what  do  trees  and  plants  live  ?  Mention  the  five  parts 
of  a  tree  or  plant.  What  are  the  duties  of  the  roots  ?  Of  the 
leaves?  How  does  the  sap  get  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves? 
Does  the  sap  always  move  in  one  direction  ?  Is  it  the  rising  or 
the  returning  sap  which  provides  the  tree  with  nourishment  and 
causes  it  to  grow  ?  In  what  part  of  an  apple,  a  pear  or  a  maple 
tree  is  the  increase  made  ?  Between  the  hard  wood  and  the  bark. 
How  can  you  ascertain  the  age  of  such  a  tree  ?  Do  all  trees  and 
plants  grow  in  this  way  ?  Mention  some  which  increase  on  the 
outside  of  the  hard  wood  ;  on  the  inside.  Which  are  ex'o-gens? 
En'do-gens  ? 

In  what  different  ways  are  seeds  distributed  over  the  earth  ? 
In  what  ways  other  than  by  seeds  are  some  trees  and  plants 
increased  in  number? 


Spelling  and  Writing  Exercises.     139 


WRITTEN   REVIEW  OF  TREES  AND   PLANTS. 

To  be  written  on  slates  or  papers,  either  at  home  or  in  school, 
as  the  teacher  may  direct.  Write,  in  the  form  shown  below,  the 
names  of  the  principal  trees  and  plants  from  any  part  of  which, 
food,  drink,  clothing,  etc.,  may  be  obtained,  prepared,  or  maim 
factured. 


NAMES  OF  TREES   AND   PLANTS. 


WHERE   PRODUCED   OR  CULTIVATE! 


I . 
2. 


4-- 

5  • 

6  . 


i . 

2  . 

3- 

4- 

5- 
6. 


Also,  those  from  which  are  obtained 

C/&44 


& 


SOUTH 
AMERICA 


About  South  America.  141 

1.  This  is  a  map  of  South  America,  which 
you   see    has   three   sides;    two   of   them   are 
washed  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean.     The  other 
and   longest   side  is   washed  by  the   Pacific 
Ocean.     On  the  extreme  north  is  the  Carib- 
be'an  Sea,  which  is  only  an  enclosed  part  of 
the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

2.  South  America  is  noticeable  for  ending  in 
a  point  (Cape  Horn)  in  the  south,  and  in  a  nar- 
row neck  (Isthmus  of  Panama)  in  the  north. 

3.  All   along   its  western   coast   rise   huge 
mountains,    many    of    which    are    volcanoes. 
What  is  the  name  of  the  range  ? 

4.  From  these  mountains  flows  the  largest  river  in  the 
world.     What  is  its  name,  and  into  what  does  it  flow  ? 

5.  In  what  country  is  the  greater  part  of  the  Amazon 
River  ?    What  country  is  furthest  south  ?    What  three  are 
furthest  north  ?     What  long,  narrow  country  lies  between 
the  Andes  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 

6.  You   have   now  mentioned   Brazil,  Patagonia,  the 
United  States  of  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Guiana,  and  Chili 
— six  countries.     There  are  exactly  six  more ;  name  one 
— another — another,  etc. 

Is  South  America  an  island,  or  a  peninsula  ? 

7.  South  America  has  higher  mountains  and 
more  volcanoes  than  North  America.     It  also 
has  more  heat,  heavier  rains,  larger  rivers,  more 
trees  and  plants,  more  birds,  insects,  monkeys 


142  Its  Climate  and  History. 

and    snakes.      Destructive   earthquakes    often 
occur  there. 

8.  The  greater  part  of  South  America,  that 
lying  near  the  line  or  circle  called  the  Equator, 
has  hot  weather  continually.    Every  day  is  like 
a  day  in  summer  with  us,  except  among  the 
mountains,  where  as  you  ascend  you  would 
find  the  climate  colder  and  colder  until  you 
would  reach  perpetual  snow. 

9.  The  Equator  is  a  great  circle  which  is  drawn  around 
a  globe  from  east  to  west.     On  maps  it  appears  like  a 
straight  line.     Near  it  are  the  hottest  parts  of  the  Earth. 

The  southern  countries  of  South  America  have  summei 
when  we  have  winter ;  spring,  when  we  have  autumn,  etc. 

10.  When  Columbus  and  other  white  men 
came  to  South  America  they  found  dark-col- 
ored people  there  too.     All  were  not  savage, 
however,  for  there  were  many  living   in   the 
western  part  who  had  kings,  princes,  govern- 
ments, magnificent  temples,  and  palaces. 

11.  The  riches  of  the  natives — Peruvians — were  coveted 
by  the  Spaniards,  who,  under  the  lead  of  Pizarro,  made 
war  against  them.     Pizarro  betrayed  the  Peruvian  Inca  or 
King,  and  took  him  prisoner.    The  Inca  offered  piles  of 
gold  for  his  liberty.     Pizarro  agreed,  took  the  gold  (value 
over  $15,000,000),  but  cruelly  put  the  Inca  to  death. 

12.  Similar  cruelties  were  practised  only  a  few  years 
before   by  Cortes,  also   a   Spaniard,   on   the   natives   of 
Mexico,  whose   civilization   was   similar  to   that   of  the 
Peruvians.     These  events  occurred  about  360  years  ago. 


Its  Products,  Animals  and  Birds.     143 

13.  You  now  see  how  Spain  came  to  own  so  much  of 
North  and  South  America — by  discovery  and  conquest. 
In  time,  however,  the  Spanish  descendants  in  Mexico  and 
South  America  rebelled  against  Spain,  and  they  have  ever 
since  ruled  in  all  those  countries ;  except  in  Brazil,  which 
belongs  to  the  descendants  of  Portuguese,  and  in  Guiana, 
which  belongs  to  the  British,  Dutch  and  French.     Except- 
ing Guiana  and  British  America,  all  the  countries  of  the 
Western  Continent  are  now  independent. 

14.  From  Brazil  we  get  nearly  all  our  coffee 
and  India  rubber,  and  in  Peru  and  Chili  pota- 
toes were  first  found.     They  grow  wild  there 
now. 

15.  Millions  of  wild  cattle  roam  over  the 
great  grassy  plains  of  the  Argentine  Republic. 
These   animals   are  caught   by  means  of  the 
lasso;   and  the   leather  of  which   your   shoes, 
boots   and   book-straps   are  made  is  probably 
made  from  their  skins.     (See  Chapter  XIX.) 

1 6.  South  America  has  the  largest  bird  of 
flight   in   the   world  —  the    Condor — and   the 
largest   snake,  the    Boa   Constrictor.     Besides 
these  there  are  the  Jag-u-ar7  or  American  Tiger, 
the    Ta'pir,    Llama   (lak'mafi),    Monkey,   the 
American  Ostrich,  Toucan  (too'kari),  and  vast 
varieties  of  beautiful  birds  and  insects. 

You  will  learn  about  all  these  in  Chapters   XVIII, 
XIX  and  XX. 


144 


How  Coal  is  Obtained, 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

MINING:    COAL,  IRON,  GOLD,  SILVER,  ETC. 

\t  To  get  coal,  men  must 
'sink  a  shaft ;  that  is,  they 
must  dig  a  great  hole  in 
the  ground  until  they  come 
to  where  the  coal  is  best 
and  most  abundant.  The 
hole  or  shaft  must  be  large 
enough  for  very  large 
buckets  full  of  coal  to  be 
raised  up  from  the  bottom ; 
and  to  raise  these  there 
must  be  a  steam-engine  at 
the  mouth  of  the  shaft. 
This  must  have  a  house 
built  over  it  to  protect  the 
machinery  and  the  work- 
men, and  this  is  the  house 
that  you  see  in  the  chart. 

2.  Down  below,  at  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft,  men 
are  working  away  with  pickaxes  and  shovels, 
making  passages  wherever  they  find  coal. 
These  passages  are  called  galleries.  In  a  coal- 
miner's  life  there  are  many  dangers.  Some- 
times the  sides  or  roof  of  the  gallery  fall  on  him 


Blackboard  Drawing-  of 
a  Mine,  Shaft,  Chute, 
and  Engine-house. 


Dangers  of  the  Mine,  145 

and  crush  him  ;  sometimes  the  choke-damp 
(coal-gas,  or  carbonic  acid)  comes  and  chokes 
him  to  death  ;  and  sometimes  the  "  fire-damp  " 
(explosive  gas)  comes,  and  blows  him  like  a 
bullet  along  the  gallery  or  up  the  shaft,  and 
sometimes  it  is  strong  enough  to  blow  the 
mine  to  pieces,  shattering  the  steam-engine 
and  breaking  into  little  sticks  the  house  that 
covers  it. 

3.  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  who  was  once  a  poor  boy,  in- 
vented a  safety-lamp  for  the  miners.     He   surrounded  a 
common  lamp  with  fine  wire  gauze,"so  that  the  flame  could 
not    get  through  it  to  set  fire  to  the  explosive  gas ;  yet, 
strange  to  say,  the  gas  will  go  through  the  wire  gauze  and 
burn  quietly  in  the  lamp,  thus  helping  the  miner  by  giving 
him  light  instead  of  blowing  him  to  pieces. 

4.  This  fire-damp  that  kills  these  miners  is  pretty  much 
the  same  as  the  gas  that  burns  so  quietly  in  our  houses  (be- 
ing carbureted  hydrogen  mixed  with  some  olenant  gas). 
If,  when  ordinary  gas  (carbureted  hydrogen)  has  been  leak- 
ing to  a  certain  extent  in  a  room,  any  person  enters  that 
room  with  a  lighted  candle,  just  such  an  explosion  takes 
place  in  that  room  as  at  the  bottom  of  a  mine.     Explo- 
sions in  mines  happen  every  year  in  this  country,  especi- 
ally in  Pennsylvania,  also  in  England  and  Wales, 
and  many  persons  have  been  thus  injured. 

5.  It   is   curious   to   get   into   one  of  these 
big  coal-buckets  and  be  lowered  down  to  the 
bottom  of  the  shaft.     What  seemed  from  the 
top  to  be  like  little  stars  or  glow-worms  moving 
about  below,  turn  out  to  be  little  lamps  fast- 


146    Coal — How  Transported — Cannel  Coal. 

ened  in  front  of  the  miners'  caps,  so  as  to  give 
them  light  and  leave  both  their  hands  free  to 
hold  the  pickaxe  or 
the  shovel. 

6.  When  the  coal 
has  reached  the  top 
of  the  shaft,  it  is  put 
into  small  cars  that 
run     on    a    sloping 
railroad  or  tramway, 
such  as  you  can  see 
in   the    large    chart, 
until    it    reaches    a 
railroad,  along  which 
it  is  drawn  to  some 
place  where  it  is  sold 
for  use,  or  to  some 
place  where   it   can 
be   put   into   canal- 
boats,  or  ships,  and 
go   wherever    water 

Interior  of  a  Coal-Mine. 

goes. 

7.  Many  coal-mines  are  reached  from  the  side 
of  a  mountain  or  hill  by  way  of  a  kind  of  tun- 
nel instead  of  a  shaft.    Coal  is  brought  from  the 
inside  of  the  mine  to  the  opening,  mostly  in 
small  cars  which  are  moved  by  horses  or  mules 
and  sometimes  by  the  miners  themselves. 

8.  One   kind  of  coal,  called  first   in    Lan- 


Coal-fields — Their  Extent — Gas.        147 

cashire,  in  England,  cannel  coal  (that  is, 
candle  or  can'le  coal),  will  burn  like  pine  wood. 
If  you  take  a  splinter  of  it  and  hold  it  in  the 
flame  of  a  candle,  it  will  take  fire  and  continue 
to  burn,  giving  out  a  light  like  a  candle.  This 
kind  of  coal  can  also  be  turned  in  the  turning- 
lathe  as  wood  is  turned,  and  sornetimes  snuff- 
boxes are  made  from  it. 

9.  The  gas  we  burn  in  our  houses  is  made 
from  coal,  which,  therefore,  not  only  warms  us 
in  winter,  but  cooks  our  supper  and  gives  us 
light  to  eat  it  by. 

10.  Many   millions  of  tons  of  coal    are    pro- 
duced   every    year.      Our    steamboats,    ocean 
steamers,  locomotives,   and    steam-engines   use 
up  many  tons  of  this  black  fuel. 

11.  Coal  has  been  in  use  in  England  for  nearly  six  hun- 
dred years.     In  the  reign  of  Edward  I.  (1272-1307)  the 
use  of  coal  was  forbidden  because  its  smoke  was  said  to  be 
injurious  to  health. 

12.  In  this  country  what  are  called  coal-fields 
have  an  extent  of  about  300,000  square  miles. 
You  must  not  imagine,  however,  that  all  this 
country  looks  black  with  coal.     On  the  contrary, 
very  little  of  it  crops  out  on  the  surface,  and  you 
may  have  a  very  fine  farm  with  all  its  trees  and 
crops  spread  out  over  a  valuable  coal-mine,  so 
that  they  may  both  be  worked  without  inter- 
fering with  one  another. 


148  Coal — From  What  Formed. 

13.  You  learned  in  the  previous  chapter  how 
necessary  leaves  are  to  the  life  and  growth  of  a 
tree,  and  how  valuable  some  kinds  are,  such  as 
those  of  the  tea  and  the  tobacco  plant ;  but  do 
you  see  any  use  in  the  leaves  of  the  forest  after 
they  have  withered  and  fallen  in  the  autumn  ? 

14.  If  you  should  dig  down  in  the  ground 
you  would  see  that  the  soil  at  the  top  is  black 
and  rich,  while  deeper  down  it  is  light-colored 
and  poor.     The  blackness  and  richness  of  the 
surface  soil  is  due  chiefly  to  the  withered  leaves 
which  fell  from  year  to  year  and  went  to  decay ; 
thus  you   may   trace   back  the   abundance   of 
your  bread,  through  large  crops  of  wheat  and 
rich  soil,  to  dead  leaves  or  dead  grass. 

15.  That    is    not    all:    geologists*    tell    us, 
among  many  other  wonderful  and   interesting 
things,  that  they  have  traced    the  coal  which 
miners    dig   out   of  the   earth    away    back   to 
trees,   plants,   leaves,  etc.,  which    had    become 
buried  in  great  masses  under  the  surface  of  the 
earth. 

1 6.  Just  how  all  these  immense  beds  of  coal 
were  made,  learned  men  have  not  agreed.     They 
appear  to  have  been  made  in  some  mysterious 
manner,  long,  long  ago,  from  trees,  plants,  and 
seeds  (especially  ferns  and  mosses),  because  the 


*  Men  who  have  studied  the  formation  of  the  earth— its  rocks,  mountains, 
soils,  etc. 


Coal — How  Formed — Charcoal.        149 


Clay. 
Iron  Ore. 

Lime  Stone. 


Interior  or  Sectional  View  in  the  Coal  Regions. 

remains  and  impressions  of  such  have  been 
found  in  them.  It  is  also  probable  that  the 
water  on  the  earth,  the  heat  inside  of  the 
earth,  volcanic  action,  and  several  successive 
elevations  and  depressions  of  the  surface  had  a 
good  deal  to  do  with  the  formation  of  coal. 

1 7.  Charcoal  is  made  by  covering,  almost  en- 
tirely, a  large  pile  of  wood  with  sod  and  earth 
and  setting  it  on  fire. 


150          Coke — Iron — Iron  Furnaces. 

1 8.  Coke  bears  the  same  relation  to  coal  that 
charcoal  does  to  wood.     The  coal  is  heated  in 
air-tight  iron  vessels,  from  which  tubes  run  into 
water,  so  that  all  the  gas  may  bubble  through 
into  another  vessel    and    be  drawn    thence  to 
light  our  houses.     Thus  we  contrive  to  make 
coke  and  gas  at  the  same  time. 

1 9.  The  coke  we  burn  in  our  grates  to  warm  us ; 
and  the  gas,  in  our  gas-burners  to  give  us  light. 

20.  The  annual  coal  production  of  the  world  is  about 
300,000,000  tons ;    one-half  of  which  is  obtained  in  Great 
Britain,  one-sixth   in   the  United   States,  one-sixth  in  Ger- 
many, and  nearly  all  the  rest  in   France,  Belgium,  and 
Austria.     The  deepest  mines  in  the  world  are  in  England. 
They  are    more  than    2,000   feet  beneath   the  surface  of 
the  earth.     One  is  over  2,400  feet  in  depth. 

21.  There  are  many  things  represented  in  the 
chart  that  are  made  of  iron.     Mention  some  of 
them. 

22.  Iron  is  the  most  useful  metal  in  the  world  ; 
it  is  far  more  useful  to  us  than  gold  and  sil- 
ver.    Iron    is  very  seldom    found    pure.   ,  It  is 
almost  always  mixed  with  other  substances,  and 
this  mixture  is  called  iron  ore.     To  get  the  iron 
from  this,  men  build  large  furnaces  of  fire-proof 
brick,  and  after  they  have  built  a  very  hot  fire 
in  the  bottom  of  one  of  these  they    put  in  a 
quantity  of  iron  ore,  then  about  as  much  lime- 
stone broken  up  into  a  convenient  size,  and  then 
on  top  of  the  limestone  about  as  much   coal. 


Iron^How  Manufactured.  151 

23.  Thus  they  keep  putting  in  layers  of  ore, 
limestone,  and   coal    until    the   whole   furnace, 
which  is  sometimes  sixty  feet  high,  is  filled  up 
to  the  top.     As  the  mass  sinks  down  they  put 
:>n  more  to  keep  the  furnace  always  full.     The 
fire  burns  all  through  this  mass,  so  that  the  ore 
is  melted  ;  a  part  of  which  mixes  with  the  heat- 
ed limestone,  making  what  is  called  slag,  and 
leaving  the  iron  free  to  run  down  below.     This 
the  iron  is  sure  to  do,  because  it  is  heavier  than 
all  the  other  things. 

24.  The  fire  in  the  furnace  is  kept  up  day  and 
night,  and  on  Sundays  as  well,  because  if  they 
were  to  allow  the  fire  to  go  out,  it   would  take 
about  a  week  to  get  it  in  order  again.     But  the 
same  men    do  not   work    at   it   all   the  time; 
there  are  two  sets  or  gangs  of  them,  and  their 
time  is  arranged  so  that  each  gang  shall  have 
the  same  amount  of  night-work.     Twice  a  day 
they  let  the  melted  iron  run  out  of  the  furnace 
and    conduct  it  along  narrow   earthen  gutters 
into  hollows  or  molds  of  sand  or  iron,  about  three 
feet  long  and  three  inches  wide  as  well  as  deep. 

25.  These,  from  their  lying  side  by  side  like  a 
litter  of  pigs,  are  called  pig-iron.     This  is  again 
melted  to  make  anything  of  cast-iron,  and  is 
poured  into  very  smooth  earthen  molds  of  the 
desired  shape.     All  our  iron  stoves  are  made  of 
such  castings. 


152  Wr  ought-Iron — Steel. 

26.  To   make   wrought-iron,  the   pig-iron  is 
melted,  and  a  convenient  quantity  is  lifted  out 
and    beaten    with    hammers   continually   while 
hot,  and  in  every  direction,  until  it  is  sufficiently 
thus   "wrought,"   which    makes  it   tough    and 
flexible. 

27.  This   is   then  made  into  bars  or  chains 
or  any  other  shape  that  is  preferred.     It  is  also 
rolled  while  hot  between  rollers  with  grooves 
in  them  so  as  to  make  long  bars  of  different 
shapes   and   thicknesses  for  different  purposes. 
Wire  also  is  made  from  wrought-iron. 

28.  To   make  steel,  this  iron  is  heated  again 
with  charcoal ;    part  of  the  charcoal  goes  into 
the  iron  and  makes  it  capable  of    being  tem- 
pered in  the  fire,  so  as  to  be  made  very  hard 
and  very  elastic,  taking  thus  a  finer  edge  when 
made  into  tools  and    ground.     It  is  from  this 
that  we  get  all  our  knives,  hatchets,  axes,  chis- 
els, gouges,  adzes,  and  other  tools.     Razors  are 
made  from  the  best  and  finest  steel,  and  when 
carefully  ground  and  sharpened  have  a  very  fine 
cutting  edge. 

29.  More  iron  is  obtained  in  England  than  in  any  other 
country  in  the  world  ;  and  in  Pennsylvania  and  Michigan, 
which  furnish  about  one-half  the  quantity  produced  in  the 
United  States.     (Census  1880.) 

30.  In  Missouri  is  Iron  Mountain,  a  mass  of  iron  200 
feet  high,  covering  an  area  of  500  acres. 

31.  The   place   most   noted   for   the   manufacture   of 
knives  is  Sheffield,  a  town  in  England. 


Salt-mines — Salt,  how  Obtained.         153 


32.  The   salt-mines    in    the    northern 
part  of  Austria  are  about  1,000  feet  in 
depth  and  two  miles  in  length.   They  con- 
tain many  great  rooms,  galleries,  and  pas- 
sages, all  cut  out  by  the  miners.   There  are 
valuable  salt-mines  also  in  Russia,  Eng- 
land, Germany,  Italy,  and  Spain. 

33.  Salt    is   obtained    not    only   from 
mines,  but  also  from  the   water   of   the 
ocean,  salt  springs  and  wells,  which  you 
have  already  learned  in  the  chapter  on 
springs  and  wells. 


A  Famous  Salt-mine  in  Austria. 


154  Silver-mining. 


Silver-mines  in  Colorado. 

34.  Silver-mining  is  carried   on  very  exten- 
sively in  the  States  of  Nevada  and  Colorado, 
where  some  men  have  become  immensely  rich 
almost  in  a  single  day,  owing  to  the  discovery 
of  silver  on  their  land. 

35.  Many    of   the   mines   are    far    up    high 
mountains  and  reach  to  great  distances  within 
them. 

36.  Silver  is  found  also  in    Utah,  Montana, 
and  other  Territories  of  the  United  States.     It 
was  formerly  found  in  large  quantities  in  Mexi- 
co, Bolivia,  and  Peru. 

37.  It  is  said  that  many  years  ago  an  Indian  hunter  in 
South  America,  in  pulling  up  a  shrub,  observed  something 
white  and  shining  clinging  to  the  roots,  and  that  this  led  to 
the  discovery  of  a  mountain  almost  filled  with  silver. 


Gol'd-m  in  ing —  Copper.  155 

38.  Gold,  the  most  precious  of  all  the  metals 
is  found  not  only  in  deep  mines  like  those  of 
iron,  coal,  or  silver — 

39.  It  has  been  found  in  the  sands  of  streams, 

into  which  it  has  been  carried 
from  the  crumbling  rocks  by 
rains,  and  from  which  it  is  ob- 
tained by  washing.  Consider- 
able gold  is  obtained  by  direct- 
ing a  powerful  stream  of  water 
against  the  rocks  by  means  of  a 
hose,  which  is  supplied  from  large  collections  of 
water  on  higher  ground.  This  is  called  hydrau- 
lic mining. 

40.  Pure  gold  is  too  soft  for  general  use,  there- 
fore it  is  mixed  with  silver  or  copper,  which  are 
harder ;  it  is  then  said  to  be  alloyed,  or  reduced 
in  purity. 

41.  For  gilding,  a  portion  of  gold  is  ham- 
mered out  into  leaves  so  thin  that  several  hun- 
dred of  them  together  would  be  no  thicker  than 
one  of  the  leaves  of  your  book. 

42.  California,  Nevada,  and  Australia 
have  long  been  celebrated  for  gold. 

43.  Copper  ore  is  found  in  several  countries 
and  States,    especially   in   the    Republic    of 
Chili  and  in  the  State  of  Michigan,  along- 
the  shores  of  Lake  Superior. 


156  Tin — Zinc — Lead — Brass. 

44.  Tin  ore  is  obtained  principally  from  the 
mines  of  England,  Australia,  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  two  islands,  Banca  and  Bil- 
liton,  which  lie  southeast  of  that  peninsula. 

45.  In  Cornwall,  the    most    southwestern   county   in 
England,  are  hundreds  of  mines  of  tin  and  copper,  some 
of  which  extend  far  out  from  the  shore  and  under  the  bed 
of  the  ocean ;  in  these  the  moaning  of  the  restless  waves 
overhead  is  always  heard,  and  their  roaring  while  a  storm 
iasts  is  fearful  to  listen  to. 

46.  Tin  is  white  and  bright,  but  too  soft  for  ordinary 
use;  therefore,  sheets  of  iron  are  dipped  into  melted  tin, 
enough  of  which  adheres  to  the  iron  to  form  a  thin  white 
coating.  Sheet-iron  thus  coated  is  the  substance  of  which 
tin  cups,  pans,  etc.,  are  made,  and  with  which  the  roofs  of 
some  houses  are  covered.  You  see,  therefore,  that  a  tin 
cup  is  really  made  of  iron. 

47.  Bronze  and  bell-metal  are  made  of  copper  and  tin 
mixed   together.       Brass   is   made   of    copper    and    zinc 
mixed  together.     There  are,  consequently,   no   mines   or 
ores  of  brass  or  bronze. 

48.  Zinc  is  a  metal  of  a  bluish  gray  tint.     It  is  exten- 
sively mined  in  several  countries  in  Europe,  and  in   the 
States   of  Wisconsin,   Missouri,  New  Jersey,  and 
Pennsylvania. 

49.  Lead  is  mined  very    extensively    in  Wisconsin, 
Illinois,  Iowa,   and   Missouri.     It  is  used  in  roofing 
houses,  lining  tanks,  and  in  making  bullets,  shot,  and  wa 
ter-pipes. 

50.  Lead  pencils  are  made  of  a  mineral  called  plumba- 
go, which   is   not   lead,  but  a  kind  of  coal.      Extensive 
mines  of  this  substance  are  found  in  England  and  Si- 
beria. 


REVIEW    OF   CHAPTER   XIII. 

What  is  a  mine  ?  A  pit  or  other  opening  dug  in  the  earth  from 
which  men  gel  coal,  iron,  or  any  other  minerals. 

Mention  some  of  the  different  parts  of  a  mine  and  its  works. 

Which  is  the  most  useful  of  all  the  minerals  ?  Coal.  Mention 
some  of  its  uses.  How  is  coal  taken  out  of  a  mine  ?  What  are 
the  dangers  of  coal-mining  ?  How  do  miners  see  to  work  in  the 
dark  mines  ? 

Do  you  know  what  coal  is  made  of?  What  is  charcoal  ?  What 
are  made  from  coal  ? 

Where  does  most  of  the  coal  used  in  the  world  come  from  ? 
Where  are  the  deepest  coal  mines  ? 

Which  is  the  most  useful  of  all  metals  ?  Iron.  Is  iron  taken 
out  of  the  mine  in  a  pure  state  ?  How  is  it  separated  from  im- 
purities ? 

What  is  pig  iron  ?  What  is  wrought  iron  ?  Of  what  kind  of 
iron  are  stoves  made  ?  Of  what  kind  are  iron  chains  and  horse- 
shoes made? 

What  is  steel  ?  What  articles  are  made  of  steel  ?  What  state 
is  celebrated  for  its  coal  and  iron  ?  Pennsylvania.  In  what  direc- 
tion is  Pennsylvania  from  your  state  ? 

How  is  salt  obtained  from  the  earth  ?  What  countries  contain 
valuable  salt  mines?  Does  all  salt  come  out  of  the  mines? 

What  states  and  territories  are  celebrated  for  their  silver  mines? 
What  two  countries  in  South  America  have  long  produced  silver? 

What  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  metals?  Gold.  How  is  gold 
obtained?  Where?  What  is  gold  leaf?  Are  gold  watches, 
chains  and  rings  usually  made  of  pure  gold  ?  Why  not  ?  Where 
is  California ?  Nevada?  Australia? 

Where  are  the  richest  copper  mines  ?  What  are  made  of  cop- 
per? Of  brass?  Is  brass  found  in  the  earth  as  copper,  iron,  etc., 
are  found?  Of  what  two  metals  is  copper  made  ? 

Where  are  the  most  extensive  tin  mines?  Point  to  England, 
Australia?  Malay  Peninsula. 

What  is  zinc  used  for?  Where  is  it  obtained?  What  states 
contain  extensive  lead  mines?  In  what  direction  from  your  state 
is  Wisconsin?  Illinois?  Iowa?  Missouri? 


158  Spelling  and  Composition. 

SPELLING    AND    WRITING    EXERCISES. 


/ 


•  ^ 
dt-tit-e-t.. 


•   / 

t&'t-i 


Write  on  slates  or  papers  the  names  of  the  principal  metals, 
and  opposite  them  the  names  of  the  places  where  they  are  mostly 
obtained. 


Write  a  composition  about  Coal.  How  mines  are  entered. 
The  dangers  of  coal-mining.  How  coal  is  obtained.  Its  origin. 
Its  uses. 

Write  what  you  know  of  Iron,  Gold,  Silver,  Copper,  Lead, 
Brass,  Salt. 


About  Europe.  159 

1.  Most  of  the  white  people  in  the  world  live 
in  Europe. 

2.  All   the  white   people  now  in  America 
either   came   from    Europe    or   are   descended 
from  those  who  came ;   therefore  they  speak 
European  languages  and  are  more   interested 
in  the  people  and  places  of  Europe  than  in 
those  of  Asia  or  Africa.     Europe  was  inhabited 
by  white  people  many  centuries  before  America 
was  discovered  (in  1492). 

3.  The  English  language  is  spoken  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada;  the  Spanish,  in  Mexico,  Central  America, 
and  nearly  all  South  America ;  the  Portuguese,  in  Brazil ; 
and  the  French,  in  parts  of  Canada. 

4.  You  have  already  learned  (on  p.  97)  that 
America  was  for  a  long  time  the  home  only  of* 
Indians,  or  until  it  was  visited  and  settled  by 
Europeans. 

5.  The  nations  of  Europe  have  ever  since  continued  to 
send  ships  to  every  part  of  the  world  to  promote  civiliza- 
tion and  to  establish  trade.    There  is  not  a  port  or  harbor  in 
the  world  that  is  not  visited  by  an  English  ship,  nor  a  city, 
town  or  village  where  the  English  language  is  not  heard. 

6.  The  greatest  nations  in  Europe  are  the  Brit- 
ish, the  Germans,  the  French,  and  the  Russians. 

7.  Europe  is  celebrated  for  its  learned  men, 
fine  churches  and  schools,  large  cities,  splendid 
palaces,  extensive  mines  and  factories,  its  kings, 
queens,  princes,  and  powerful  armies. 


EUROPE 


ARCTIC 
OCEAN 

North  Cape 


s 


EXERCISES    ON    THE    MAP. 

What  Grand  Division  is  east  of  Europe  ?     Asia. 

What  Grand  Division  south  ?     Africa. 

What  ocean  north  of  Europe  ?  West  ?  What  great  sea 
south  ?  What  smaller  seas  are  connected  with  the  Medi- 
terranean Sea  ?  What  strait  connects  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  with  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  What  sea  east  of  Great 
Britain  ? 

What  is  the  largest  country  in  Europe  ?  What  three 
seas  touch  Russia  ?  What  countries  touch  or  border  on 
Russia  ? 

What  countries  of  Europe  form  islands  ?  England, 
Scotland  and  Wales  form  the  Island  of  Great  Britain; 
Ireland  is  an  Island. 

What  country  in  the  south  is  a  peninsula  ?  Italy.  What 
two  countries  in  the  north  form  a  peninsula?  Norway 
and  Sweden.  What  smaller  country  north  of  the  German 
Empire  is  mostly  a  peninsula?  Denmark.  What  two 
countries  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Europe  form  one 
peninsula  ?  Spain  and  Portugal. 

What  two  small  countries  lie  between  the  German  Em- 
pire and  the  North  Sea  ?  Holland  and  Belgium. 

What  small,  mountainous  country  in  Europe  has  no  sea- 
coast  ?  Switzerland. 

Which  are  the  warm  countries  of  Europe  ?  Those  which 
border  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

What  fruits  grow  in  the  open  air  in  those  countries  ? 
Oranges,  lemons,  olives  and  figs. 

What  mountains  between  France  and  Spain  ?  Between 
Switzerland  and  Italy  ? 

What  large  river  flows  into  the  west  side  of  the  Black 
Sea  ?  Into  the  Caspian  Sea  ?  What  bay  west  of  France  ? 


1 62  About  Europe. 

ABOUT  GREAT  BRITAIN  : — Has  possessions  in  Europe, 
Asia,  Africa  and  America ; — Formerly  governed  this  coun- 
try;— English  language;  —  Extensive  commerce;  —  Coal 
and  iron  mines ;  cotton,  woolen  and  linen  mills ; — Con- 
tains London,  the  largest  and  richest  city  in  the  world. 

ABOUT  GERMANY  : — People  fond  of  learning  and  music  ; 
— Fine  schools  and  universities ;  German  language ; — 
Beautiful  River  Rhine; — Old  castles  (p.  67); — Large 
vineyards  ;  —  Wine  ; — Linen  ; — Books  ; — Toys  ; — Berlin,  a 
handsome  city,  about  the  size  of  New  York. 

ABOUT  FRANCE: — Beautiful  country; — Celebrated  for 
silk,  wine  and  fancy  articles; — Paris  the  gayest  city  in 
the  world — twice  as  large  as  New  York; — Formerly  an 
empire — now  a  republic  ; — French  language. 

ABOUT  RUSSIA: — Largest  country  in  Europe; — Long, 
cold  winters  and  deep  snow; — Large  army; — Empire, 
ruled  by  the  Czar ; — Principal  city,  St.  Petersburg ; — Prin- 
cipal crop,  wheat ; — Language,  Russian. 

ABOUT  HOLLAND  : — Kingdom  ; — Ground  flat  and  low ; 
—  Many  canals  and  windmills;  —  Language,  Dutch;  — 
Largest  city,  Amsterdam. 

ABOUT  SPAIN  :  —  Kingdom ;  —  Spaniards  first  visited 
America ; — Grapes,  wine,  oranges  ; — Music,  dancing,  and 
bull-fights ; — Language,  Spanish ; — Largest  city,  Madrid. 

ABOUT  ITALY  : — Delightful  climate  — Beautiful  lakes ; — 
Its  capital  is  the  celebrated  city  of  Rome,  which  contains 
St.  Peter's,  the  most  magnificent  church  in  the  world ; — 
The  Pope  resides  in  Rome  ; — Fine  statuary  and  paintings ; 
— Silk  ;  —  Grapes  ;  —  Kingdom ;  —  Language,  Italian ;  — 
Largest  city,  Naples. 

(The  above  characteristics  may  be  used  for  STUDY  and  DRILL  ••  also  as  topics 
for  COMPOSITION.) 


Volcanoes — Earthquakes — Lava.        1 63 


A  Volcano  and  other  Mountains. 

CHAPTER    XIV. 

MOUNTAINS,    VOLCANOES,  ETC. 

i.  Here  is  a  volcano,  which  is  a  burning 
mountain.  Sometimes  volcanoes  throw  out  red- 
hot  stones,  sometimes  melted  stones  called  lava, 
sometimes  smoke,  and  sometimes  ashes.  Most 
of  them  are  along  the  Pacific  coasts  of  Asia 
and  South  America.  There  are  more  than  a 
thousand  volcanoes  in  the  world.  They  are 
useful  in  preventing  earthquakes ;  in  supplying 
us  with  sulphur,  with  some  fine  kinds  of  lava, 
from  which  bracelets  and  breast-pins  are  made, 
and  with  pumice-stone,  which  is  the  froth  that 
floats  sometimes  on  streams  of  lava. 


1 64  Stromboli — Vesuvius. 

2.  In  1783  a  volcano  in  Iceland  sent  out  two  streams  of 
lava,  one  40  miles  long  and  7  miles  wide,  and  the  other  50 
miles  long  and  15  miles  wide.     These  streams  were  from 
100  to  600  feet  deep.    In  this  eruption  n,ooocows,  27,000 
horses,  and  186,000  sheep  perished. 

3.  In  the   island    of  Java    is    a   volcano   (Papanday- 
ang)  which,  in  1772,  threw  out  ashes  and  cinders  so  as  to 
cover  the  earth  fifty  feet  deep  for  a  distance  of  seven  miles 
all  around  the  mountain,  thus  destroying  forty  villages  and 
twenty  thousand  people. 

4.  Sometimes  volcanoes  rise  from  the  sea.     This  hap- 
pened   in  1866,  near   the  Navigators'    Islands,  in  the 
Pacific.     Stones,  mud,  and   dust  were  thrown  up  2,000 
feet.  Some  of  the,  stones  going  down  met  others  coming  up 
with  a  terrible  crash.      For  half  a  mile  around  the  water 
was   in    terrible   commotion.      Heaps   of    dead  fish   were 
washed  ashore,  and-  among   them  some  strange  monsters, 
from  six  to  ten  feet  long,  such  as  the  natives  had  never 
seen  before;  while  the  atmosphere  for  miles  around  was 
heated  and  filled  with  smoke,  ashes,  and  sulphurous  vapors. 

5.  North  of  Sicily  are  the  Lipari  (lip'a-re)  Islands. 
On  one  of  these  is  a  volcano  named  Stromboli  (strorri- 
bo-le),  which  has  given  out  lava  for  2,000  years,  and,  from 
its  constant  light,  has  been  called  the  light-house  of  the 
Mediterranean. 

6.  The  best-known  volcano  in  the  world  is 
Vesuvius,  which  is  in  Italy,  near  the  city  of 
Naples.     This  was  not  known  to  be  a  volcano 
until  the  year  79,  or  about  eighteen  centuries 
ago,   when    it   suddenly    burst    forth    and  sent 
out  such    an    immense   quantity  of  ashes  and 
cinders  as  to  overwhelm  two  cities  situated  near 
it.    These  cities  were  named  Herculaneum  and 


Destruction  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum.    165 

Pompeii  {pom-pay'e}.  Almost  all  their  inha- 
bitants managed  to  escape.  The  ashes  that  fell 
upon  Herculaneum  were  mixed  with  steam,  so 
that  the  moist  ashes  gradually  hardened  into 
stone. 

7.  Pompeii  was  covered  over  with  dry  ashes 
so   completely   that    nothing    could    be    seen 
of  it.      Thus   it   remained    buried   until    1748, 
when  it  was  accidentally  discovered.     Excava- 
tions were  then  commenced  and  have  conti- 
nued  to   the    present   day.      About   one-third 
of  the  city  has  been  uncovered,  and  you  can 
now  walk  along  the  streets  and  look  into  the 
houses,  and  see  exactly   how  people   lived    in 
those  days. 

8.  Vesuvius   frequently  pours  out  lava,  and 
travelers  often  stand  close  by  a  stream  of  lava 
flowing  from  it,  and  see  smoke  issuing  from  its 
crater. 

9.  A  story  is  told  of  a  Roman  soldier  who  was  guard- 
ing one  of  the  gates  of  that  ancient  city  at  the  time  it 
was  destroyed.     Although  the  people  rushed  wildly  past 
him,  in   their   anxiety  to  escape   suffocation   and   death, 
he    stood    at    his    post,    and,    unfortunately,    having    no 
orders   to   leave  it,   he   remained  and  perished.      When 
the   great  heaps  of  ashes  were  carried    away   from    that 
part   of  the   city   nearly    seventeen    centuries    afterwards 
his   skeleton  was   found  on  the  spot,  with  his  weapons 
beside  it. 

10.  The  ruins  include  those  of  dwellings,  temples,  thea- 
tres, statues,  fountains,  etc. 


REVIEW  OF  CHAPTER  XIV. 

What  is  a  mountain  ?     Land  raised  to  a  great  height. 

How  high  are  the  highest  mountains?    About  five  miles  above  the 
level  of  the  ocean. 
*     In  what  part  of  the  world  are  the  highest?    In  Asia. 

With  what  are  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains  always  cov- 
ered ?  Snow. 

With  what  are  the  sides  of  nearly  all  mountains  covered?    Trees. 

What  mountain  in  this  country  is  named  after  our  first  presi- 
dent? Mount  Washington. 

Where  is  Mount  Washington  ?    In  New  Hampshire. 

What  is  the  highest  mountain  in  the  United  States?  Mount 
Whitney  ',  in  California. 

What  great  line,  range  or  chain  of  mountains  extends  through 
the  western  part  of  the  United  States  ?  The  Rocky  Mountains. 

Mention  other  celebrated  mountains  of  the  world.  The  Alps  in 
Ettrope,  and  the  Andes  in  South  America. 

What  is  a  volcano  ?  (See  page  163.)  What  do  volcanoes  throw 
out?  Along  what  coasts  are  most  of  the  volcanoes?  About  how 
many  volcanoes  are  there  in  the  world? 

Are  any  volcanoes  in  the  state  (or  territory)  in  which  you  live? 
Are  there  any  mountains?  Which  is  the  most  celebrated  volcano 
in  the  world?  Where  is  Vesuvius?  How  were  two  cities  de- 
stroyed by  it?  How  long  did  these  cities  afterward  remain  com- 
pletely under  the  ashes  ?  What  volcano  is  called  the  "  light-house 
of  the  Mediterranean?"  Why?  What  volcano  in  Sicily?  Etna. 

SPELLING     AND     WRITING      EXERCISES. 

4e.&-&c 


You  may  write  a  composition  about  any  mountain  which  you 
have  seen  or  read  about  ;  telling  how  it  looks,  how  it  is  ascended 
—  what  may  be  seen  in  the  ascent  —  what  dangers  attend  traveling 
up  mountains  ;  or  you  may  write  a  composition  about  the  eruption 
of  Vesuvius.  Write  as  much  as  will  fill  one  page  of  a  copy-book. 


What  Light-houses  are  for. 


167 


CHAPTER    XV. 

LIGHT-HOUSES. 

1 .  Light-houses  are  very 
necessary  in  saving  ships. 
When  the  wind  is  blowing 
a  ship  towards  the  shore 
on  a  dark  night,  if  there 
were  no  light-houses  the 
ship  would  inevitably  be 
destroyed. 

2.  The  United  States 
has  many  miles  of  sea-coast 
along  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Oceans,  as  well 
as  on  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, and  also  in  the  great 
lakes  of  the  north ;  these 

lakes  are  like  seas  of  fresh  water. 

3.  To  protect  the  shipping   on  all  this  long 
line  of  coast  this  country  supported  in  1873  six 
hundred  and  twenty  light-houses. 

4.  Light-houses   are  built  of  stone,  brick,  or 
iron.    To  look  at  some  of  the  rocks  before  a  light- 
house is  built  on  them,  you  \vould  say  that  it 
was  impossible  to    build    anything    on  such  a 
slippery,  wave- washed  place  as  that,  for  some- 
times  the  rock  can    be  seen  for  a  short   time 
only  at  low  tide. 


A  Light-house. 


1 68       Spelling  and  Writing  Exercise. 

5.  The  ingenuity  and  patient  thought  of  man 
can,  however,  overcome  many  difficulties,  and 
one  plan  after  another  has  been  tried,  until  all 
obstacles  have  been  overcome. 

6.  The  next  time  it  blows  hard  on  a  dark 
night,  especially  if  the  wind  blow  towards  the 
shore,  you  can  readily  imagine  every  one  on 
board  a  ship  peering  eagerly  to  see  the  wished- 
for  light.     When  at  length  they  see  it,  what  joy 
spreads  from  stem  to  stern  !     The  captain  takes 
out  his  watch,  and,  after  observing  a  little,  says  : 
"  It  is  a  revolving  light,  and  it  revolves  in  so 
many  minutes  ;  now  I  know  which  light  it  is, 
and  I  know  just  where  we  are." 


REVIEW  OF  CHAPTER  XV. 

What  are  light-houses  built  for  ?  Of  what  materials  are 
they  built  ?  On  what  are  they  built  ?  On  the  coast,  usually 
on  capes  and  islands.  If  the  keeper  should  neglect  the  light, 
what  might  be  the  consequence  ?  How  does  he  get  up  to 
the  light  ?  By  means  of  stairs  inside  the  light-house. 


SPELLING    AND     WRITING    EXERCISE. 
,    d  ris 


'ij>, 


How  Windmills  Work.  169 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

WINDMILLS. 

i.  Here  is  a  windmill  (pointing  to  it  on  the 
chart).  This  is  a  machine  by  means  of  which 
we  take  hold  of  the  wind,  that  we  cannot  see, 
and  make  it  do  work  that  we  can  see.  Wind- 
mills are  often  used  in  this  country  to  grind 
wheat  into  flour,  and  corn  into  meal. 


Black-board  Drawing-.    Cog-wheels.    Draw  them  by  means  of 
chalk  and  a  piece  of  cord. 

2.  The  large  sails  of  the  windmill  turn  a  large 
shaft  with   a  cog-wheel — that  is,  a  strong  iron 
wheel   with    teeth,  called  cogs,   all   around   it. 
These  teeth,  or  cogs,  fit  into  the  cogs  of  other 
wheels  and  make  them  go  around,  so  that  you 
can  change  in  any  way  that  is  necessary  the  di- 
rection  of  the  moving  wheels.      Thus  a  very 
large,  round,  and  flat  stone  with  a  hole  in  the 
middle  is  made  to  turn  around  above  another 
stone  and  very  close  to  it. 

3.  If  wheat  is  poured  into  the  hole  in  the 
upper  millstone  it  gets  down  between  the  stones., 


170         Windmills   Used  for  Pumping. 

and  there,  as  this  upper  millstone  turns  around, 
the  wheat  is  ground  into  flour,  which  drops  out 
all  around  the  edges  of  the  stone.  This  flour 
is  sifted,  and  put  into  barrels,  and  then  sold  to 
those  who  wish  to  make  bread,  biscuit,  cakes, 
pies,  or  anything  else  from  it. 

4.  Sometimes   this  is  done    by  steam-mills, 
and  one  of  those  here  in  front  may  be  a  steam 
flouring-mill  (see  chart.) 

5.  The  earth  gives  the  grain ;  fire  gives  its  power  to 
the  steam-miil,  and   is  used   in   baking  the  bread ;  water 
must  be  mixed  with  the  flour  to  make  dough  ;  air  must  be 
got  into  the  dough  so  as  to  raise  it  up  and  make  it  light; 
air  also  helps  the  windmill  to  grind  the  flour;  it  is,  there- 
fore, clear  that   fire,  air,  earth,  and  water  all  contribute  to 
the  making  of  our  bread. 

6.  In    Holland,    where    the    land  in    some 
places  is  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  sea,  hun- 
dreds of  windmills  are  placed  along  the  dikes 
for  the  same  purpose.     They  can  also  be  seen  in 
this  country  near  some  large  country-seats,  where 
they  are  used  to  pump  up  water,  so  that  it  may 
be  had  in  the  highest  stories  of  the  houses. 


REVIEW.  OF  CHAPTER  XVI. 

What  are   the   uses   of  windmills  ?     What  moves  their 
wheels  ?    What  are  made  from  flour  ?    How  is  bread  made  ? 


SPELLING    AND    WRITING    EXERCISE. 


Balloons — Why   They  Rise.  171 


Excursion  in  a  Balloon. 

CHAPTER   XVII. 

BALLOONS. 

1.  Here  is  a  balloon.     The  first  balloons  were 
made  in  1783,  of  paper,  and  were  made  to  rise 
by    heated    air    coming    from    chopped    straw 
that  was  burned  in  a  wire  grating  below  them. 
This  heated  air,  being  lighter  than  the  common 
air  about  it,  makes  the  balloon  rise  up,  just  as  a 
cork  does  in  water.     (Afterwards  pure  hydrogen 
gas  was  used,  and  then  carburetted  hydrogen, 
which  is  what  we  use  to  burn  in  our  houses.) 

2.  The  first  man  who  ever  dared  to  go  up  in  a  balloon 
was  a  young  Frenchman  (named   De  Rozier),   who  was 
killed  two  years  after  (1785)  by  the  burning  of  his  balloon. 
Two  persons  crossed  the  Straits  of  Dover  in  a  balloon 
in  that  same  year.     The  first  woman  balloonist  (Madame 
Blanchard),after  several  ascensions.attempted  to  set  off  some 


172      Balloons — How  Moved  and  Used. 

fireworks  while  rising  up  from  a  garden  near  Paris  in  1796. 
Her  balloon  caught  fire,  and  she  was  dashed  to  pieces. 

3.  An  English    a'er-o-naut  or   balloonist   made    1,400 
ascensions,  crossing    the  English  Channel  three  times 
and  falling  into  it  twice.    In  the  highest  strata  of  air  reached 
by  balloons  men  suffer  severely  from  cold,  no  matter  how 
hot  the  day  may  be  on  the  ground  they  leave.  The  breath- 
ing becomes  difficult,  the  pulse  much  quickened,  and  the 
throat  parched.     The  highest  mountain  in  the  world  is  5^ 
miles  high,  but  in  1862  two  Englishmen  ascended  to  the 
height  of  37,000  feet,  or  7  miles.      Both,  however,  were 
nearly  killed  by  the  cold. 

4.  A  balloon  moves  about  very  easily  in  the 
air,  so  that  a  very  slight  change  of  weight  will 
affect  it  seriously. 

5.  Soon  after  the  invention  of  balloons  they 
were  used  in  war,  being  held  fast  by  a  long  rope, 
while  some  officers  looked  down  from  them  to 
see  what  was  going  on  in  the  enemy's  camp. 

6.  In  the  last  war  in  the  United  States  a  bal- 
loon corps  (kor)  was  organized,  and  news  was 
telegraphed  from  these  balloons   to  headquar- 
ters. 

7.  On  one  occasion  General  Fitz-John  Porter  was  observ- 
ing the  enemy's  lines  from  a  balloon,  when  the  rope  broke 
and  he  was  carried  rapidly  towards  the  enemy.    Pulling  the 
valve-string,  he  caused  an  escape  of  gas.     This  admitted 
enough  outside  or  heavier  air,  lowered  the  balloon  and 
brought   him  into  a  different  current  of  air,  which  fortu- 
nately took  him  back  to  where  he  started  from. 

8.  When  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  Germans  in  1870, 
fifty-four  balloons  were  sent  off  at  different  times  by   the 


Spelling  and  Writing  Exercise.       173 

Post-office  Department.  These  carried  millions  of  let- 
ters. Sixty-two  were  sent  off  in  all  during  the  siege,  most- 
ly at  night,  so  as  to  escape  the  observation  of  their  ene- 
mies, the  Germans. 

9.  In  spite  of  all  precautions,  several  fell  within  the  ene- 
my's lines.  One  was  fired  at  while  crossing  the  Prussian  out- 
posts.   Several  were  carried  outside  of  France.    One  was 
swept  into  Norway,  and  landed  600  miles  north  of  the  city 
of  Christiania.     Three  were  never  heard  of  after  they  set 
out,  and  were  most  probably  lost  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

10.  Some  men  who  wished  to  get  out  of  the  besieged 
city  went  in  these  balloons  as  passengers.    Among  these  was 
a  member  of  the  Provisional  Government,  the  now  famous 
Gambetta,  who,  voyaging  safely  through  the  air,  arrived  at 
the  city  of  Tours,  where  he  joined  his  colleagues  in  the 
government. 

SPELLING    AND     WRITING     EXERCISE. 


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Why  does  a  balloon  rise  in  the  air  ?  What  causes  it  to 
come  down  ?  What  about  the  temperature  of  the  air 
through  which  it  ascends  ? 


About  Asia. 


175 


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176  About  Asia. 

The  capital  of  the  Chinese  Empire  is  the  largest  city  in 
Asia ;  what  is  its  name  ?  Pekin,  which  is  larger  than  New 
York  and  Brooklyn  combined. 

Which  are  the  most  civilized  people  in  Asia?  The 
Japanese  and  Chinese.  Which  are  the  most  friendly  with 
white  people  ?  The  Japanese. 

What  is  the  largest  city  in  Japan?  Tokio,  which  is 
nearly  as  large  as  Philadelphia. 

Mention  some  of  the  countries  in  the  southern  part  of 
Asia  ?  In  the  western  part  ? 

What  parts  of  Asia  contain  extensive  deserts  ?  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  the  northern  part  of  the  Chinese  Empire. 

How  do  merchants  or  traders  cross  deserts  ?  In  large 
companies,  called  caravans.  What  animal  is  the  most  useful 
in  crossing  deserts  ?  The  Camel. 

How  do  many  people  of  Western  Asia  live  ?  They  live 
in  tents,  and  move  from  place  to  place  to  find  pasture  for 
their  sheep,  goats,  horses,  and  camels. 

North  of  Hindostan  are  the  highest  mountains  in  the 
world, — what  is  their  name  ?  The  Himalaya  Mountains.* 

By  what  country  is  Hindostan  governed  ?     England. 

What  grow  extensively  in  Hindostan?  Cotton,  Rice, 
and  Opium.  In  Anam,  Siam,  and  Birmah?  Rice.  In 
Arabia  ?  Coffee  and  Dates. 

What  is  the  difference  in  climate  between  Siberia  and 
the  southern  countries  of  Asia?  Siberia  is  very  cold; 
Hindostan,  Arabia  and  the  other  countries  in  the  south  are 
very  hot.  What  animals  are  found  in  Siberia  ?  The 
Reindeer,  Wolf,  and  White  Bear.  In  Hindostan  ?  The 
Elephant,  Tiger,  Rhinoceros  and  Crocodile. 


*  The  highest  peak  in  Asia  is  29,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea ;  in  South 
America,  23,000  feet ;  in  Africa,  20,000  feet ;  in  North  America,  18,000  feet ;  and 
in  Europe,  15,000  feet. 


About  Birds —  The  Eagle. 


«^    /|» 

;  :N 


Blackboard  Drawing.    American  Eagle.    Height,  3  feet;  width 
of  outspread  wings,  8  feet. 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

ABOUT  BIRDS. 

1.  Here  is  a  bird  which  can  rise  in  the  air  as 
high  as  any  balloon,  and  can  steer  itself  so  as  to 
go  whither  it  wishes,  which   is  more  than   the 
man  in  the  balloon  can  do.     For  this  purpose  it 
is  contrived  with  wonderful  wisdom.     Number- 
less air-cells  are  distributed  throughout  its  body, 
extending  even  into  its  bones.     These  air-cells 
the  bird  can  fill  at  pleasure,  and  thus  rise  more 
easily  in  the  air,  or   it   can  empty   them  and 
make  itself  heavier,  so  as  to  descend  more  rap- 
idly  upon    its  prey.     Its   feathers   are    models 
of  strength  and  lightness.     It  is  an  eagle  (see 
chart). 

2.  The  EAGLE  is  a  bird  of  prey — that  is,  it 
procures  its  food  by  violence  or  robbery,  seizing 
not  only  other  birds  but  also  young  fawns,  rac- 
coons, rabbits,  wild  turkeys,  etc.     Its  height  or 


178       Birds  of  Prey — Eagte — Condor. 

length  is  about  three  feet.     Some  eagles  have 
been  known  to  live  more  than  a  hundred  years. 

3.  The  EAGLE  is  noted  for  its  great  strength 
and  endurance,  and  it  has  been  accepted  as  an 
emblem  of  the  United  States,  also  of  Prussia, 
Austria,  and  other  great  nations. 

4.  Although  eagles  have  been  reported  to  be 
very  fierce,  and  as  having  carried  off  young  chil- 
dren, yet  they  have  not  always  shown  as  much 
bravery  and  courage  as  some  smaller  birds. 

5.  On  account  of  the  eagle's  cowardice  and  tyranny 
Benjamin  Franklin  lamented  that  it  should  have  been  se- 
lected as  the  emblem  of  this  country. 

6.  The  young  eagles,  called  eaglets,  are  driven  from 
their  eyrie  (a1  re),  or  nesfr,  by  the  old  ones,  so  soon  as  they 
•are  able  to  provide  for  themselves. 


Head  and  Bill  of  Humming-Bird,  1  inch  long-;  of  Eagle,  10 
inches;  of  Condor,  10  inches— all  to  be  drawn  on  the  black- 
board full  size. 

7.  The  largest  bird  of  flight  is  the  CONDOR, 
which  has  its  home  in  the  Andes  Mountains. 
It  lives  in  the  highest  and  loneliest  places,  and, 
like  the  eagle,  it  is  a  bird  of  prey.  Two  of 


•  Condor — Owl.  1 79 

them,  driven  by  hunger,  do  not  hesitate  to  at- 
tack a  horse,  or  a  bull,  or  other  large  animal, 
which  they  tear  to  pieces  with  their  strong, 
sharp  beaks  and  talons  (claws)  ;  and  when  they 

have  killed  it  they  so 
gorge  themselves  with  its 
flesh  that  they  are  unable 
to  fly.  Men  who  wish 
to  capture  them  take  ad- 
vantage of  this  greedi- 
ness, and  leave  the  dead 
body  of  a  horse  or  other 
animal  on  the  field  until 
the  condor  has  eaten  so 
much  as  to  become  help- 
less. Its  height  is  about 
four  feet. 

8.  Humboldt,  a  celebrated 
German  naturalist  and  travel- 
ler, once  noticed  a  condor  fly- 
ing over  the  summit  of  Chim- 
borazo  (Chim-bo-rah'zo),  a 

Blackboard  Drawing-.  mountain    in    South  America 

Barn  Owl.    Height  1 5  inches.  -  ..        ,.    , 

more   than    four   miles   high. 

Humboldt  made  very  important  explorations  in  the  Old 
World,  also  in  Mexico,  the  West  Indies,  the  United 
States  of  Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Peru. 

9.  The  OWL  is  remarkable  for  its  large,  round 
eyes,  feathered  ears,  and  fear  of  daylight.  It  flies 
about  and  seeks  its  food  in  the  night-time,  de- 


180     Sizes  of  Birds — Hawk — Humming-bird. 

vouring  mice,  birds,  moles,  young  rabbits,  etc. 
It  builds  in  caves,  old  walls,  towers,  etc.  There 
are  more  than  a  hundred  species. 

10.  The  OSPREY,  or   FISH-HAWK,  is  said  to 
be  able  to  carry  a  fish  of  its  own  weight,  but 
the  eagle,  when  he  sees  the  osprey  carrying  off 
a   fish,  pounces  upon  him,  and,  forcing  him  to 
let  go,  swoops  down  with  wonderful  swiftness, 
catching  the  falling  fish  before  it  can  touch  the 
water. 

11.  The    birds    of   prey    include    the    eagle,    condor, 
vulture,    falcon    (faw'kri),    hawk, 

and  owl.  Their  characteristics 
are  strength,  hooked  bill,  strong, 
sharp  talons,  fierce  look,  and  keen 
scent.  Condor. 

12.  The  FALCON  obtains  its  prey  while  it  is 
flying.     It  is  trained  to  capture  other  birds.     Its 
home  is  in  Europe  and  America. 

13.  Birds  vary  in  size,  from  the  huge  condor, 
that  has  a  body  four  feet  long,  and  wings  which 
sometimes  spread  out  fourteen  feet  in  width,  to 
the   little   humming-bird,  which    is   not   much 
larger  than  a  big  beetle. 

14.  The  HUMMING-BIRD    is    small   and  very 
beautiful.     It   is   remarkable  for   its   long  bill, 
which    reaches   honey   and   insects    inside    of 
flowers,  for  its  feathers  of  rich  green,  red,  purple, 
and  brown,  and  for  the   quick  motions   of  its 
wings,  which  cause  the  humming  sound.     Like 


Weaver-birds — Oriole.  1 8 1 

most  other  beautiful  birds,  they  are  more  nume- 
rous in  Brazil  and  other  warm  countries  of 
South  America  than  in  the  United  States. 
There  are  about  four  hundred  species  of  hum- 
ming-birds. 

15.  Audubon,  the  celebrated   American   ornithologist, 
in  describing  the  humming-bird,  called  it  the  "  glittering 
fragment  of  the  rainbow." 

1 6.  There  is  a  bird  that  knows  how  to  sew,  and 
is  therefore    called   the  tailor-bird.      He  sews 

leaves  together  and  thus 
forms  his  nest.  Others 
take  long  grass  or  any 
other  fibrous  material,  and 
weave  it  into  a  kind  of 
coarse  cloth,  of  which 
they  make  their  nests. 

17.  We    have   one   of 
these    weaver-birds     in 
our  country.     It  is  called 
the   BALTIMORE   ORIOLE, 
a  beautiful    bird  covered 
with   orange    and    black 
feathers. 

1 8.  This   nest,   as  you 
see     (referring  to    the 
drawing    on    the    black- 
Blackboard  drawing  of  Baiti-  board),      is     not     only 

more  Oriole.    Full  lengrth  of  . 

bird,  74  inches.  strongly  woven  together, 


1 82     Plasterer  Birds — Chimney -swallow. 

but  kept  frpm  swaying  too  violently  in  the 
wind  by  cords  that  brace  it  in  different  direc- 
tions. 

19.  The  Baltimore  oriole  spends  the  winter  in  Mexico, 
Central  America,  and  the  West  Indies,  and  returns  north 
in  the  spring,  flying  all  day  and  resting  at  night.     It  is 
known  as  far  north  as  the  New  England  States,  and  is 
sometimes    called    the    "  fire-bird,"    from    its    color,    also 
"hang  bird"  and  "  golden  robin." 

20.  Some  birds  are  good  plasterers,  and  fix 
their  nests  with  mud  or  clay  very  neatly  and  se- 
curely in  any  favorable  place.     Some  are  so  skil- 
ful as   to  make    them  adhere  securely   to  the 
smooth  surface  of  glass. 

21.  Our    common    CHIMNEY-SWALLOW  is    a 
very  good  plasterer. 

22.  He  has,  besides,  a  very  curious  arrangement  in  his 
head.     There  are  two  glands  or  bags  in  the  back  part  of  it, 
which  are  filled  with  liquid  glue.     After  he  has  made  a  shelf 
of  mud  or  clay  he  makes  his  nest  of  tender  twigs,  interlacing 
them  and  joining  their  ends  smoothly  together  by  means 
of  this  liquid  glue,  so  that  no  rough  ends  may  stick  out  on 
the  inside.    After  being  lined  with  feathers  or  any  other  soft 
material  and  securely  plastered  around  on  the  outside,  it  is 
ready  for  the  eggs. 

23.  Cuvier   was  one    of  the    greatest  naturalists    that 
ever  lived.     His  attention  was  first  called  to  this  study  by 
some  of  these  plasterers.     When  quite  a  young  man   he 
went  one  summer  to  spend  his  vacation  in  a   little    place 
near  the  sea.     Just  outside  of  his  window  two   swallows 
had  built  their  nest.     One  day  a  strange  bird  came  and 
'took  possession  of  the  nest,  opposing  its  sharp  beak  to  the 


Ingenuity  of  Birds.  183 

mother-bird  when  she  came  home.      She  and  her  mate 
chattered  together  for  some  time,  and  then  flew  away. 

24.  They  came  back  soon,  however,  with  a  great  many 
others.     They  chattered   together   for  a  little   while,  and 
then  flew  away  again. 

25.  Presently    they   all   reappeared,   flying   in    a   long 
file,  one  after   the  other,  each    bearing  some  mud  in  its 
claws.     They  flew  close  to  the  nest,  where  sat  the  strange 
bird  in  impudent  security,  and,  as  they  passed,  each  threw 
the  mud  he  carried  directly  into  the  face  of  the  intruder, 
which  was  thus  killed  and  buried  in  the  very  place  of  his 
crime — the  nest  he  had  stolen. 

26.  From  that  moment  Cuvier  devoted  himelf  to  the 
study  of  birds,  fishes,  insects,  quadrupeds,  and  other  ani- 
mals, and  became  distinguished  for  his  knowledge  of  natu- 
ral history. 

27.  There  are  other  birds  which  may  be  called 
miners,  for  they  dig  holes  in  the  earth  and  make 
their  nests  at  the  end  of  these  holes. 

28.  Such  are  the  SAND  MARTINS,  which  dig  in 
a  dry  sand-bank  horizontal  galleries,  at  the  ends 
of  which  they  have  their  comfortable  nests.  They 
fly  about  in  small  flocks,  and  seem  to  make  very 
pleasant  and  sociable  little  communities. 

29.  These  things   show  that  birds,  though  their  heads 
are  small,  must  have  brains. 

30.  It  is  said  by  some  naturalists  that  the  CANARY-BIRD 
has  a  larger  brain  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  its  body  than  . 
any  other  living  creature ;  however,  it  is  wonderful  to  see 
these  bright  little  birds,  after  only   a  fortnight's  training, 
act  before  an  audience,  fight  mimic  battles  and  duels,  fire 
cannons,  fall  down  as  if  shot,  and,  feigning  death,  be  car- 
ried off  by  their  companions  with  astonishing  composure. 


1 84  Cormorant —  Toucan — Bird-of- Paradise. 


Cormorant,  length  3  feet ;  Toucan,  17  inches  long:,  its  bill,  9  in- 
ches ;  Bird-of- Paradise,  head  and  body  together,  12  inches  in 
length ;  its  tail-feathers,  24  inches.  Draw  full  size. 

31.  The  birds  trained  by  the  Chinese  to  catch 
fish  for  their  masters  are  called  CORMORANTS. 

32.  Like  the  duck,  goose,  and  swan,  the  cor- 
morant has  webbed  feet  and  short  legs.     He  is 
a  very  expert  diver  and  swimmer,  making  use 
not  only  of  his  feet  but  also  of  his  wings  under 
the  water. 

33.  The  TOUCAN  (too'kan)  is  remarkable  for 
its  large  orange-red  bill,  which  is  more  than  half 
as  long  as  its  body. 

34.  The  feathers  of  its  back  and  wings  are 
mostly  black,  and  of  its  throat,  white.     It  builds 
in  the  holes  of  trees,  and  feeds  on  fruits,  small 
birds,  reptiles,  and  insects. 

35.  Unlike  eagles  and  condors,  which  live  in 
pairs,  the  toucans  live  in  flocks. 

36.  They  are  numerous  in  Brazil  and  othei 
warm  parts  of  South  America. 

37.  The  BIRD-OF-PARADISE,  from  which  long, 
beautiful    feathers    of    brilliant    colors — green, 


Movements  of  Birds. 


185 


yellow,  red,  and  purple — are  obtained  for  ladies' 
hats,  is  a  native  of  the  island  of  Papua  (/#/'- 
oo-a),  or  New  Guinea.  It  is  found  also  on 
Celebes  (sel'e-bees),  the  Philippine  {fil'ip- 
pin),  and  other  islands  southeast  of  Asia.  It 
is  about  as  large  as  a  pigeon,  and  feeds  on  seeds, 
grasshoppers,  etc. 

38.  Other  birds  which  are  remarkable   for  the  length 
and  beauty  of  their  tails  are  the  LYRE-BIRD  of  Australia 
and  the  TROGAN  of  the  Torrid  Zone. 

39.  The     rapidity 
with  which  birds  can 
move    through    the 
air    is     astonishing. 
Few    persons     have 
any  idea  of  the  force 
expended  in  the  ac- 
tion of  flight. 

40.  Some  birds  fly 

so  rapidly  that  the  strokes  of 
the  wing  cannot  be  counted.  | 
The  wings  of  the  humming- 
bird when  in  motion  cannot 
even  be  seen. 

41.  Let   any    one   try   to 
count  the  strokes  of  the  wing 
of  a  pigeon  or  of  the  diving 

sea-fowl,  and  he  will  find  that  it  is  utterly  im 
possible. 


Birds  building:  a  nest. 


1 8  6  Carrier-pigeon — Ostrich. 

42.  Still  more  astonishing  is  the   wonderful 
power  possessed  by  some  birds  of  finding  their 
way  through  the  pathless  air,  with  no  apparent 
means  of  guiding  their  course.     This  has  been 
turned  to  account  by  man  in  the  case  of  the 
CARRIER-PIGEONS,  which  are  used  in  carrying  let- 
ters to  distant  places. 

43.  When  Paris  was  besieged  by  the  Germans  in  1870, 
a  great  many  letters  were  carried  to  and  fro  by  these  birds. 

44.  Their  general  rate  of  flight  does  not  usually  exceed 
thirty  miles  per  hour. 

45.  Some  carrier-pigeons  were  let  loose  at  Scranton,  in 
Pennsylvania,  in  1878,  and  they  alighted  on  the  coop  of 
their  owner  in  the  city   of  New  York,  after  flying  a  dis- 
tance of  one  hundred  and  six  miles,  in  about  three  hours. 

46.  PIGEON-HAWKS  must,  of  course,  fly  faster 
than  pigeons  so  as  to  catch  them,  and  they  are 
sometimes  trained  for  that  purpose,  so  that  the 
letters  carried  by  the  carrier-pigeons  may  come 
into  the    possession  of  those   for  whom  they 
were  not  intended.  ^_- 

47.  Some    birds,  on    the     other 
hand,  cannot  fly  at  all.    In  this  case 
their  bones  are  as  solid  as  ours.  One 
of  these,  the  OSTRICH,  is  the  tallest 
of   living    birds,   being    sometimes 
eight  to  ten  feet  high,  and  weigh- 
ing from  fifty  to  one  hundred  pounds,     ostriches. 

48.  They  furnish  us  with  very  beautiful  feath- 
ers.    These  are    so    valuable   that    men  have 


Cassowary — Emu — Mound-bird.        187 

caught  and  tamed  the  ostriches,  and  you  may 
now  see  in  South  Africa  ostrich  farms  where 
these  birds  are  reared. 

49.  There  is  an  ostrich  found  in  South  Ameri- 
ca, but  it  is  smaller  than  the  African  ostrich.     It 
is  called  the   RHEA.     Its  feathers  are  so  much 
less   beautiful   that,  in   place   of  adorning   the 
heads  of  our  ladies,  they  are  made  into  feather 
dusters. 

50.  During  the  day  the  heat  of  the  sun  aids  in  hatching 
the  eggs  of  the  African  ostrich,  but  at  night  the  male  bird 
sits  on  the  nest  so  as  to  protect  the  eggs  from  all  assaults, 
and  if  attacked  by  a  wild  animal  it  will  kill  it  by  a  kick. 
One  of  these  eggs  will  weigh  from  two  to  three  pounds, 
and  is  equal  to  about  twenty-four  such  eggs  as  you  some- 
times have  for  breakfast. 

51.  The    CAS'SO-WA-RY   of    Eastern    Asia    and    the 
E'MU  of    Australia  resemble  the  ostrich  very  much,  but 
are  not  so  large.     They  are  very  swift  runners.     The  os- 
trich when  pursued  runs  about  thirty  miles  an  hour,  and  is 
only  captured  by  Arabs  on  swift  horses  after  a  chase  of 
several  hours. 

52.  Some  eagles,  hawks,  and   crows   are   so 
cunning  as  to  have  found  out  that  a  turtle  or  a 
clam,  no  matter  how  closely  shut  up,  may  be 
opened    by  being  carried  up  high  into  the  air 
and  then  let  fall  upon  a  rock. 

53.  The  MOUND-BIRDS,  that  live  in  Australia,  are  cun- 
ning enough  to   have    found   out  that    fermenting   vege- 
table matter  gives  out  heat  enough  to  hatch  eggs;    so, 
after   scraping  up  grass  and  weeds  in   their  claws,  they 
throw  them  together  so  as  to  make  a  huge  heap  or  mound, 


1 88 


Usefulness  of  Birds. 


sometimes  seven  feet  high  and  twenty  feet  across.  The 
heat  of  the  interior  of  this  is  said  to  reach  sometimes 
ninety-five  degrees. 

54.  In  this  mound  the  birds  make  holes,  in  which  they 
deposit  their  eggs,  and  leave  them  there  to  be  hatched  out 
by  this  internal  heat. 

55.  Our  domestic  fowls,  as  well  as  many  other  birds/ 
supply  us  with  food.      Others  supply  us  with  feathers  for 
our  pillows;  others  give  us  pens  to  write  with.     In  some 
places  men  train  hawks  to  catch  other  birds  for  them,  and 

some  large  hawks  are  trained 
to  kill  even  gazelles  and  small 
deer. 

56.  Birds  also  give  men  much 
amusement  by  the  various 
tricks  they  are  taught.  Par- 
rots and  some  other  birds  can 
be  taught  to  pronounce  words, 
and  can  be  made  to  repeat 
whole  sentences  so  naturally  as 
to  startle  and  surprise  those 
people  who  hear  them. 

57.  Birds  are  very  use- 
ful to  us,  not  only  for  food 
and  their  beautiful  feath- 
Parrot.  ers>  but  also  for  destroy- 

ing insects  which  would  do  great  damage  to 
trees  and  plants.  They  also  devour  snakes, 
lizards,  etc. 

58.  The  SERPENT  BIRD  of  Africa  will  attack  a  large 
snake,  making  use  of  one  of  his  strong  wings  as  a  shield 
and  of  the  other  as  a  weapon,  with  which  he  inflicts  blow 
after  blow  until  the  reptile  is  overcome. 


Woodpecker — Pelican. 


Blackboard  Drawing:  White  Pelican;  full  length,  5  feet;  bill, 
14  inches  long:;  pouch,  7  inches  deep.  Woodpecker;  full 
length,  15  inches. 

59.  The   WOODPECKER   appears  to   have   a 
hard  life  when  compared  with  that  of  birds 
which  easily  find  their  food  on  the  ground,  in 
the  water,  or  among  the  leaves  of  the  trees ; 
for  the  worms  and  insects  upon  which  he  lives 
are  hidden  away  in  the  trunks  of  trees.     To 
get  them  he  must  tear  away  the  bark  and  per- 
haps bore  or  drill  deep  holes  in  the  hard  wood. 
This  he  does  with  his  long,  strong  bill,  much 
faster  than  any  of  you  could  do  it  with  a  sharp 
knife. 

60.  The  Woodpecker  runs  up  and  around  the  trunk  of 
a  tree,  tapping  with  his  bill  as  he  goes,  and  when  he  hears 
a  hollow  sound,  he  knows  a  worm  is  there. 

6 1.  Some  Woodpeckers  also  bore  large  holes  in  trees 
in  which  to  build  their  nests, 

62.  The  PELICAN  is  remarkable  for  the  great 
pouch  or  sack  which  is  under  its  long  bill  and 


1 90 


The  Heron. 


which  serves  as  a  kind 
of  scoop-net.  This  pouch 
will  hold  fish  sufficient 
for  the  dinner  of  six  men. 

63.  Pelicans  are  expert  fish- 
ers.     A  number  of  them  will 
surround  a  shoal  of  fishes  and, 
gradually  swimming  closer  to- 
gether, drive  them  into  shallow 
water,  where  they  devour  them 
in  large   quantities.     Having 
webbed  feet,  they  are  excellent 
swimmers. 

64.  They  feed  their  young 
with  food  which  they  had  swal- 
lowed, and  which  they  have  the 
power  of  raising  to  their  bills. 

65.  Pelicans  are  found   in 
Florida,  California  and  other 
parts  of  North  America;  alsa 
in  Asia,  Africa  and  Southeast 

ern  Europe.     Some  are  white,  and  others  brown. 

66.  Another  excellent  fisher  is  the  HERON. 
It  is  remarkable  for  its  long,  curved  neck,  long 
bill,  and  long,  straight  legs,  which  are  admirably 
adapted  to  its  mode  of  life.     Its  feet  are  not 
webbed  and,  consequently,  it  is  not  a  swimmer. 

67.  Its  home  is  near  swamps.     Its  food  consists  of 
fish,  frogs,  etc.,  which  it  catches  by  watching  in  dark, 
lonely  spots.     In  this  respect  it  differs  from  the  Pelican, 
Gull,  Petrel  and  Ibis,  which  are  very  active. 


Blackboard  Drawing-:   Her- 
on; full  height,  3H  feet. 


Flamingo — Stork.  1 9 1 

68.  Another  very  tall  bird  similar  in  shape  to 
the  Heron  is  the  RED  FLAMINGO.    It  is  a  swim- 
mer and  wader.     With  its  webbed  feet  it  digs 
in  the  mud  for  worms,  insects,  and  small  fishes. 

69.  It  is  found  in  the  marshes,  lakes,  and  rivers  of 
Asia,  Africa,  and  the  warm  parts  of  Europe.     It  is  about 
as  tall  as  a  man. 

70.  The  WHITE  STORK  is  also  a  long-legged 
wader.     It  is  noted  for  its  intelligence  and  is 
very  observing,  readily  judging  of  the  feelings 
entertained  toward  it  by  the  people  on  whose 
house-tops  or  chimney-tops  it  wishes  to  build 
its  great,  rough  nest. 

71.  In  Holland  and  Germany,  which  Storks  visit 
every  year,  some  of  these  birds  become  very  tame  and 
play  with  the  children  in  the  streets.     Their  feet  are  not 
webbed.     Are  Storks  swimmers  ?     You  will  observe  that 
all  birds  which  have  webbed  feed  are  good  swimmers,  but 
very  clumsy  walkers,  as  the  Goose,  Swan  and  Duck. 

72.  When  the  time  arrives  for  Storks  to  leave  their  nests 
and  migrate,  they  have  been  known  to  kill  their  sick ;  but, 
on  the  other  hand,  they  are  generally  kind  to  each  other, 
and  the  young  have  been  noticed  to  watch  anxiously  over 
the  aged  and  helpless  of  their  kind,  bringing  them  food 
and  otherwise  tenderly  caring  for  them. 

73.  The  Stork  passes  the  winter  in  Egypt,  where,  like 
the  VULTURE,  another  large  bird,  it  feeds  on  garbage,  car- 
rion and  other  such  substances,  thus  preventing  the  spread 
of  disease  among  the   people  who   are  too   indolent  to 
cleanse  their  streets.     It  is  about  as  tall  as  a  boy  nine 
vears  of  age — four  feet. 


1 9  2  Cra  ne — Swan — Kingfisher. 

74.  The  CRANE  is   another  long-necked,  long-legged 
bird,  very  active,  graceful,  and  intelligent.    Like  the  Stork, 
it  spends  its  winters  in  Egypt  and  other  warm  countries 
and  its  summers  further  north.     Its  food  is  fish,  frogs,  and 
vegetables. 

75.  The  SWAN,  which  has  a  long  neck  and  short  legs, 

is  considered  the  most  grace- 
ful of  swimmers.  Both  father 
and  mother  carry  their  young 
on  their  backs  and  shelter 
them  under  their  wings  ;  and, 
should  the  safety  of  their  brood 
be  threatened,  they  do  not 
hesitate  to  attack  man,  horse, 
fox,  dog,  or  any  other  aggres- 
sor. 

76.  Swans  belong  to  Europe, 
Asia  and  North  America ;  their 
food  consists  chiefly  of  the 
roots  and  bulbs  of  water  plants. 
It  is  said  that  some  Swans  live 
as  long  as  an  Elephant — one 
hundred  years. 

77.  The  KINGFISHER, 
like  the    Gull,   pounces 

Blackboard  Drawing:  King-       Upon  itS  prey  at  the  SUr- 
fisher;  length,  12  inches.          c r 


unlike  it,  it  sits  alone  on  a  branch  which  over- 
hangs the  water,  while  the  Gull  and  the  Stormy 
Petrel  skim  rapidly  and  almost  unceasingly 
over  the  water  in  search  of  their  food. 


Blackboard  Drawing :  Snipe  and  Common  Quail ;  height  of  each 
about  9  inches. 

78.  The  SNIPE,  a  much  smaller  bird  than  the 
Heron,  has  long  legs  and  a  long,  slender  bill, 
which  are  admirably  adapted  to  procuring  its 
food — insects  and  worms  on  coasts  and  marshes. 

79.  The  Snipe  belongs  chiefly  to  North  America  and 
Europe.     Included  in  this  family  are  the  WOODCOCK  and 
PLOVER,   which   are   highly  prized   by  sportsmen.      The 
PENGUIN  of  the  Antarctic  Regions,  and  the  PUFFIN  and 
AUK  of  the  Arctic  Regions  sit  upright  when  on  shore. 

80.  The  QUAIL  has  a  short  bill  and  feeds  on 
grain,  seeds,  berries  and  insects,  which  it  finds 
on  the  ground.      It  flies  low  and  only  when 
startled  lights  upon  trees. 

81.  Quails  pass  the  night  on  the  ground,  all  huddled 
together  in  a  circle,  with  their  heads  outward,  the  better 
to  listen  and  fly  if  danger  approaches. 

82.  Similar  to  the  Quail  are  the  Partridge,  Pheasant, 
and  Grouse ;  indeed,  these  names  are  sometimes  applied 
indiscriminately  to  the  same  kind  of  bird. 


REVIEW    OF    CHAPTER    XVIII. 

By  what  means  does  a  bird  rise  in  the  air?  Its  wings  and  air. 
cells.  Where  do  birds  obtain  their  food  ?  In  the  air,  on  the  ground, 
or  in  the  water.  Of  what  does  their  food  chiefly  consist  ?  Seeds, 
fruits,  insects,  Jish,  and  animal  Jlesh. 

What  is  a  Bird  of  Prey?  What  bird  is  the  emblem  of  this  and 
some  other  countries  ?  The  Eagle.  What  is  its  size  ?  How  long 
do  some  Eagles  live?  What  is  a  young  Eagle?  Eaglet.  What 
can  you  say  of  the  Eagle's  strength?  Of  its  bravery? 

Which  is  the  largest  bird  ?     The  Ostrich. 

Which  is  the  largest  bird  that  flies?  The  Condor.  On  what 
mountains  do  Condors  live  ?  TJie  Andes.  In  what  kind  of  places  ? 
What  do  they  eat?  How  are  they  captured  ? 

Which  is  the  smallest  bird  ?  What  does  the  Humming  Bird 
eat? 

Mention  three  celebrated  naturalists?  Cuvier  (French),  Hum- 
boldt  (German),  and  Audubon  (American). 

How  did  Audubon  describe  the  beauty  of  the  Humming  Bird  ? 

What  bird  seeks  its  food  at  night?  The  Owl.  What  does  the 
Owl  eat?  Birds,  mice,  rabbits,  etc.  In  what  kind  of  places  does 
the  Owl  have  its  nest  ?  In  caves,  walls,  etc. 

What  kind  of  bills  do  Birds  of  Prey  have  ?    Hooked  bills. 

What  large  birds  while  flying  catch  fish  for  food  ?  Fish  Hawk 
and  Gull.  Name  some  birds  which  catch  fish  while  wading  or 
standing  in  the  water.  The  Heron  and  Crane.  What  bird  stands 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree  and  watches  for  fish  ?  The  Kingfisher. 
Mention  some  birds  which,  while  swimming  or  diving,  catch  fish. 
The  Pelican  and  Cormorant.  What  bird  catches  fish  for  his  master? 

What  is  a  Tailor  Bird  ?  A  Weaver  Bird  ?  Mention  a  Weaver 
Bird.  How  does  it  build  its  nest?  Mention  a  Plasterer  Bird. 
A  Mining  Bird.  What  bird  is  remarkable  for  its  large  bill  and 
brilliant  colors?  The  Toucan.  Where  is  it  found?  In  Brazil. 
What  does  it  eat? 

From  what  two  birds  are  obtained  long  and  beautiful  feathers, 
worn  by  ladies  ?  The  Ostrich  and  the  Bird  of  Paradise. 


Review  of  Birds.  195 


Where  is  the  Ostrich  found  ?    The  Bird  of  Paradise  ? 

What  large  bird  in  South  America  is  similar  to  the  Ostrich  ? 
The  Rhea. 

What  bird  in  Australia  is  similar  to  the  Ostrich?     The  Emu. 

What  bird  in  Asia  is  similar  to  the  Ostrich  ?     The  Cassowary. 

How  do  these  four  birds  move  from  place  to  place  ?  By  walking 
and  running.  How  are  Ostrich  eggs  hatched?  How  does  an 
Ostrich  try  to  escape?  How  does  an  Ostrich  sometimes  defend 
itself? 

What  birds  are  sometimes  used  as  letter-carriers? 

How  are  young  birds  usually  hatched  from  the  egg?  By  the 
heat  of  the  old  bird  which  covers  or  sits  upon  the  eggs. 

How  are  Mound  Birds  of  Australia  hatched  ?  By  the  heat  of  the 
mound  or  of  the  sand  in  which  the  eggs  are  laid. 

In  what  other  way  are  eggs  hatched  without  the  aid  of  the  old 
birds  ?  By  placing  the  eggs  in  hot  ovens. 

What  reptiles  lay  their  eggs  in  the  sand,  as  Mound  Birds  do,  to 
be  hatched  out  by  the  sun's  heat?  Turtles. 

Mention  some  of  the  uses  of  birds.  What  birds  are  useful  to 
us  for  their  flesh  ?  For  their  feathers?  For  their  eggs ? 

What  bird  finds  its  food  in  the  trunks  of  trees?  The  Wood- 
pecker. How  does  it  get  the  insects  on  which  it  feeds?  How 
does  it  find  the  spot  where  the  insect  is  ? 

What  bird  is  remarkable  for  its  great  sack  or  pouch  under  its 
bill  ?  For  what  does  it  use  this  sack  ?  How  do  Pelicans  catch 
fish  ?  How  do  they  feed  their  young  ?  What  kind  of  feet  has  the 
Pelican  ?  What  other  birds  have  webbed  feet  ? 

What  kind  of  a  bird  is  the  Heron?  How  does  it  catch  fish? 
In  what  kind  of  places  ?  What  beautitul  red  bird  resembles  the 
Heron  ?  The  Flamingo.  Where  is  the  Flamingo  found  ?  In 
Asia,  Africa  and  Southern  Europe.  What  does  it  eat  ? 

What  large  white  bird  resembles  the  Heron  ?  The  White  Stork. 
Does  the  Stork  always  stay  in  one  place?  Where  does  it  spend 
the  winter?  The  summer?  How  does  it  build  its  nest?  Is  it 
an  intelligent  and  observing  bird  ?  How  do  you  know  ?  Is  it 
fond  of  children?  How  do  you  know?  Is  the  young  Stork  fond 
of  its  parents  and  grandparents?  How  does  it  show  its  fondness 


196  Review  of  Birds. 

for  them  ?  What  good  is  done  to  the  people  of  Egypt  by  the  Stork 
and  Vulture?  Which  is  the  most  graceful  swimming-bird  ?  The 
Swan.  Where  do  they  belong?  What  do  they  eat?  How  do 
they  carry  and  protect  their  young  ? 

What  birds  live  on  insects  and  worms  found  on  the  coasts  and 
marshes?  The  Snipe. 

What  birds  of  the  Arctic  Regions  swim,  catch  fish,  and  when  on 
shore  sit  in  an  upright  position  ?  The  Auk  and  Puffin. 

What  similar  bird  is  found  in  great  numbers  in  the  Antarctic 
Regions?  The  Penguin.  How  are  they  captured?  By  clubs. 
Can  these  birds  fly  ?  They  cannot. 

What  bird  spends  its  time  on  the  dry  ground?  The  Quail. 
How  does  a  family  or  a  bevy  of  Quails  spend  the  night?  Do  they 
fly  upon  trees  ?  When  ?  What  do  Quails  eat  ? 

From  what  places  do  birds  migrate  in  the  autumn  ?  Those 
•which  have  very  cold  winters.  How  far  south  do  birds  of  our 
Northern  States  and  Canada  go  ?  To  our  Southern  States,  Mexico, 
West  Indies,  Central  and  South  America.  When  do  they  return  ? 
In  the  Spring.  Do  all  birds  migrate  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  manner  ?  They  do  not ;  some  fly  very  high  and  seldom  touch 
the  ground ;  some  both  fly  and  swim  ;  some  go  from  forest  to  forest 
and  from  tree  to  tree  ;  others  walk  all  the  way. 

Where  do  birds  of  Northern  Europe  and  Asia  spend  their  win- 
ters ?  In  Southern  Europe,  Southern  Asia,  and  in  Africa. 

(It  is  said  that  small,  feeble  birds  cross  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
on  the  backs  of  Storks  and  other  large  birds.) 

In  what  direction  do  birds  of  the  southern  or  cold  parts  of  South 
America  and  Australia  fly  to  find  warm  countries  ?  North. 

How  do  singing  birds  of  the  forest  usually  pass  the  day?  Rising 
before  the  sun,  they  sing  their  morning  song  ;  then  breakfast ;  drink  ; 
bathe  (either  in  water  or  dust  or  snow);  rest ;  arrdnge  feathers ;  fly 
about ;  assemble  on  accustomed  perches  ;  then  sing  their  evening  song. 

Where  are  birds  in  the  greatest  variety  and  numbers  ?  In  the 
Torrid  Zone. 

What  proportion  of  birds  in  North  America  migrate?  More 
than  half. 

Why  do  they  leave  in  the  fall  ?  Partly  because  of  the  disappear- 
ance of  seeds,  fruits,  and  insects  which  formed  their  food.  (  There  are 
other  reasons  which  are  too  mysterious  for  man  to  flnd  ouf.) 


Written  Review.  197 


SPELLING     AND     WRITING     EXERCISE. 


BIRDS    OF    PREY — FLESH-EATERS— WITH    HOOKED    BILL  AND    SHARP 
TALONS : 


CLIMBERS  : 


RUNNERS   (WINGS   NOT   ADAPTED   TO   FLYING)  : 


WADERS  (LONG  LEGS,  NECK,  AND  BILL)  : 

(F.*)  €^^(M.)  3&«^,(P.M.) 


SWIMMERS  (WEB-FOOTED)  : 

,  (P.M.) 


Those  marked  (F.)  are  Fishers ;  (M.)  Migratory  or  Birds  of  Passage. 


Comparative  Size  of  Birds. 


199 


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Cape  of  Good  HopeS.^ 
J?  C.Agulhas 


About  Africa.  201 

EXERCISES  ON  THE  MAP  OF  AFRICA. 

By  what  two  oceans  and  two  seas  is  Africa  almost  sur- 
rounded ? 

Into  what  ocean  does  the  Mediterranean  Sea  open  ? 
Into  what  ocean  does  the  Red  Sea  open  ?  What  isthmus 
between  these  two  seas  ?  By  what  canal  is  that  isthmus 
now  crossed  ?  The  Suez  Canal  What  two  seas  are  con- 
nected by  this  canal  ? 

For  what  is  Africa  remarkable  ?  For  its  hot  climate,  Us 
Great  Desert,  its  tribes  of  savage  inhabitants,  and  its  great 
numbers  of  wild  animals. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  size  of  the  Great  Desert  ?  // 
is  nearly  as  large  as  the  United  States. 

What  part  of  Africa  is  the  home  of  the  Negro  ?  Soudan 
and  the  region  south  of  it.  In  what  part  is  Soudan  ? 

Of  what  color  are  the  inhabitants  of  Northern  Africa  ? 
Dark,  but  not  black. 

What  country  in  the  northwestern  corner  of  Africa? 
Morocco.  What  kind  of  leather  do  we  get  from  there  ? 
Morocco  leather. 

What  country  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  Africa? 
Egypt.  For  what  is  Egypt  remarkable  ?  Having  no  rain, 
it  would  be  a  desert,  but  for  the  Nile  River.  How  does  the 
Nile  prevent  Egypt  from  becoming  a  desert  ?  //  rises  very 
high  every  year,  and  its  water  spreads  all  over  the  people's 
farms  and  gardens.  Why  is  the  Sahara  or  Great  Desert 
dry  and  barren  ?  Because  it  has  no  rain. 

What  is  that  spot  or  portion  of  a  desert  called  which 
contains  springs,  grass,  and  trees  ?  An  Oasis.  Where 
does  that  water  come  from  which  forms  those  springs  ? 
From  land  beyond  the  Desert ;  the  water  runs  underground 
for  long  distances. 


202  About  Africa. 

What  people  of  Africa  were  very  rich  and  learned  long 
before  any  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  became  civilized  ? 
The  Egyptians.  Mention  the  names  of  some  celebrated 
men  of  ancient  Egypt.  Joseph,  Moses,  and  the  Pharaohs 
or  kings  of  Egypt. 

What  cause  the  Nile  to  rise  ?  Heavy  rains  in  Abyssinia 
and  the  region  south  of  it.  What  large  lakes  in  the  central 
part  of  Africa  ? 

What  large  rivers  in  Africa?  The  Nile,  Congo,  and 
Niger.  Into  what  does  the  Nile  flow  ?  The  Congo  ?  The 
Niger  ?  How  long  is  the  Nile  ?  Four  thousand  miles. 

What  three  countries  border  on  the  Red  Sea?  What 
countries  west  of  Soudan  ?  What  countries  of  Africa  are 
furthest  south  ?  What  two  capes  in  the  southern  part  of 
Africa  ?  -What  large  island  southeast  of  Africa  ?  What 
groups  of  islands  northwest  of  Africa  ?  What  Birds  come, 
from  one  of  those  groups  ?  What  great  general  was  ban- 
ished to  the  Island  of  St.  Helena  and  died  there  ?  Napo- 
leon Bonaparte  I.  Where  is  that  island  ? 

Mention  two  celebrated  explorers  of  Central  Africa. 
Livingstone  and  Stanley. 

What  very  tall  trees  grow  in  Africa  ?  Palms.  Mention 
two  kinds  of  palms.  Date  Palm  and  Cocoanut  Palm. 

What  valuable  article  do  we  get  from  the  Elephants  of 
Africa  ?  Ivory. 

What  grows  extensively  in  Abyssinia  ?     Coffee. 

What  large  bird  in  Africa?  The  Ostrich.  For  what 
are  they  useful  ?  Where  are  they  raised  in  large  numbers  ? 
(Page  187.) 

In  what  parts  of  Africa  do  some  white  people  live  ?  On 
the  northern,  western,  and  south  coasts. 

Where  do  the  savage  and  warlike  Kaffirs  and  Zulus 
live  ?  In  the  south. 


Catching  Cattle  with,  the  Lasso.       203 


Catching-  Cattle  with  the  Lasso. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

ABOUT  QUADRUPEDS. 

1.  Here  is  a  herdsman  riding  rapidly  after  a 
herd  of  CATTLE  and  throwing  a  lasso  (see  chart). 
This  is  a  rope  about  half  an  inch  thick,  made  of 
strips  of  leather,  and  about  thirty  feet  long,  with 
a  slip-noose  at  one  end  that  runs  very  easily. 
The  other  end  of  the  rope  is  fastened  securely 
to  the  front  of  the  saddle. 

2.  These  men  are  so  skillful  in  throwing  the 
lasso  that  they  can  catch  a  bull  by  any  one  of 
his  legs  or  by  either  horn.     The  horse  is  trained 


204          Uses  rf  Cattle —  The  Buffalo. 

to  stand  still  as  soon  as  the  lasso  is  thrown,  with 
his  fore  feet  well  braced  to  meet  the  shock. 
Sometimes  a  bull  thus  caught  by  the  horns  in 
full  career  turns  a  complete  somerset,  and, 
falling  heavily  on  his  back,  is  so  thoroughly 
jarred  that  he  is  disposed  to  be  very  submis- 
sive, and  trots  on  quietly  with  the  herd. 

3.  Millions  of  cattle  feed  on  the  vast  grassy  plains  of 
Texas,  Mexico,  and  South  America.    Their  value 
lies  chiefly  in  their  flesh,  which  is  called  beef;  their  hides, 
which   are  manufactured  into  leather;   and  their  tallow, 
which  is  used  in  making  soap  and  candles. 

4.  Cattle  are  numerous  also  in  Russia,  India,  and 
our  Western  States  and  Territories. 

What   does  the  cow  give  us  ?     What  is  made  from 
milk?     What  is  the  flesh  of  calves  called?     Veal. 

5.  Leather  is  made  from  the  hides  and  skins  of  cattle, 
horses,  goats,  sheep,  deer,  and  buffalo.     Its  manufacture 
is  one  of  the  most  important  industries  in  the  United 
States  and  England. 

6.  Here  is  a  herd  of  BUFFALOES,  which  are 
more  properly  called  bisons.     Indians  are  pursu- 
ing them.  They  are  killed  with  guns,  arrows,  and 
spears  (see  chart).     Their  flesh  is  used  for  food. 

7.  An   Indian  has  been  known   to  send  an 
arrow  with  such  force  that  its  head  has  gone 
entirely  through  the  body  of  a  buffalo.     The 
dressed  skin   of  the  .buffalo  is  called  a  buffalo 
robe,  and  many  of  them  are  used  in  this  coun- 
try in  winter,  when  people  go  in  sleighs  over 
the  snow. 


The  Buffalo — Its   Uses. 


205 


American  Indians  Hunting-  Buffaloes  on  the  Prairies. 

8.  The  Indians  use  buffalo  skins  for  clothing 
and  for  tents,  as  well  as  for  making  a  peculiar 
kind  of  shoe  called  a  moc'casin. 

9.  BUFFALOES  were  formerly  found  as  far  east 
as  the  State  of  New  York,  but  now  none  are 
found  east  of  the  Mississippi   River,    and 
they  are  constantly  diminishing  in  numbers. 

10.  The  American  BUFFALO,  or  BISON,  is  also 
hunted  by  wolves.    These  join  in  a  pack  and  try 
to  cut  off  one  of  the  buffaloes  from  the  herd. 

11.  The  true  buffalo  has  long  horns,  and  resembles  a 
cow.     The  buffalo,  zebu,  and  yak,  when  tamed,  work  like 
the  ox,  or  give  milk  like  the  cow.  ' 


2o6  Yak — Zebu — Buffalo — Gnu. 


Blackboard  drawing  of  Yak  and  Zebu;   each  about  6  feet  6 
inches  in  length. 

12.  The  YAK  is  larger  than  common  cattle.  It  has  a 
bushy  tail  and  long  hair,  from  which  tents  and  ropes 
are  made.  It  is  found  in  Thibet  (tib'ct}  and  other 
parts  of  Central  Asia,  both  in  the  wild  and  the  domestic 
state. 

13.  The  ZEBU  resembles  an  ox,  except  that  it  has  a 
large  hump  on  its  back  over  its  shoulders.  Some  are 
wild  and  some  are  domesticated  in  Asia,  Africa  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  Hindoos  consider  the  Zebu 

sacred. 

14.  The  true  BUFFALOES 
inhabit    Asia    and   Africa, 
where  they  run  in  herds  and 
are  fierce  and  strong.     One 
is  able  to  kill  an  elephant. 

15.  The  GNU  of  South 
Africa  has  a  body  like  that 
of  a  horse,  and  a  head  and 

Buffalo  of  the  East ;  length  10ft.   horns  like  those  of  an  ox. 

16.  Of  all  animals  the  DOG  shows  the  greatest 
affection  for  his  master,  whose  smile,  or  frown, 


Dog —  Wolf — Fox — Jackal.  207 


Fox  Chasing  a  Rabbit. 

or  word,  gives  either  pleasure  or  pain  to  this 
faithful  companion  of  man. 

17.  He  is  ever  ready  to  risk  his  life  for  his  master;  and 
so  constant  is  he,  that  when  death  has  entered  his  master's 
home,  this  devoted  creature  has  been  known  to  grieve  his 
life  away  on  the  newly  made  grave. 

1 8.  Especially  useful  and  intelligent  are  the  shepherd's 
dog,  the  Newfoundland  dog,  St.  Bernard  dog,  the  fleet 
greyhound,  the  keen-scented  hunting  dog,  the  courageous 
bull-dog,  and  the  rat-killing  terrier. 

19.  Animals  of  the  dog  kind  include  the  WOLF,  which 
lives  in  a  wild,  savage  state,  and  is  always  in  search  of 
plunder ;   the  Fox,  which  is  noted  for  its  cunning,  sly, 
and  thieving  disposition;  and  the  JACKAL,  of   Asia  and 
Africa,  which,  like  the  wolf,  hunts  in  bands  or  packs. 

20.  There   is   an  interesting   animal  found  upon  the 
prairies,  called  the  PRAIRIE  DOG.     These  little  animals 
burrow  in  the  ground  like  rabbits,  and  live  in  communities 
so  numerous  that  their  "  dog  town,"  as  it  is  called,  some- 
times extends  for  miles. 

21.  Another  very  common  animal  is  the  CAT.     Of  this 


208    Cat — Lion — Tiger — Leopard,  Etc. 

kind  are  the  WILD  CAT,  LION,  TIGER,  LEOPARD,  JAG'U-AR, 
PUMA,  and  LYNX. 

22.  The  LION  is  called  the  "king  of  beasts,"  lives  in 
Asia  and  Africa,  and  is  noted  for  its  powerful  claws  and 
great  courage;   the   TIGER   inhabits  the  jungle-grass  of 
Southern  Asia,  has  a  striped  body  and  a  fierce  disposition, 
and  does  not  hesitate  to  attack  even  the  elephant  or  man ; 
the  LEOPARD  of  Asia  and  Africa  resembles  the  Tiger,  except 
that  its  beautiful  and  valuable  skin  is  spotted  ;  the  JAGUAR 
or  South  American  Tiger  is  spotted  like  the  Leopard,  and 
is  strong  enough  to  carry  off  a  horse ;  the  PUMA  is  called 
the  American  lion ;  the  LYNX  resembles  the  cat. 

23.  Animals  of  the  dog  and  the  cat  kind  are  eaters  of 
flesh,  and  are  therefore  called  carnivorous.    Animals  which 
are  tame  and  live  in  or  near  people's  houses,  are  domestic 
animals  \  others  are  wild. 

Is  a  dog  a  domestic,  or  wild  animal?     A  lion?     A 
tiger  ?     A  cat  ?     A  wolf  ?     A  leopard  ? 

24.  The  animal  which  most  resembles  man  is 

the  GORILLA.  Its  head  and 
arms  are  longer  than  those 
of  a  man.  Its  mouth  is 
very  projecting.  Some  Go- 
rillas are  nearly  as  tall  as  a 
man,  but  they  are  usually 
seen  in  a  bent  or  crouching 
posture.  The  coarse  hair 
which  covers  them  is  either 
gray  or  blackish.  A  full  grown  Gorilla  is  savage 
and  powerful,  being  feared  even  by  the  lion. 
When  about  to  attack  an  enemy,  he  stands  up, 


Chimpanzee — Monkeys,  Etc.  209 

beats  his  breast,  and  gives  a  loud  and  terrific 
roar.  His  food  is  vegetables,  sugar-cane,  ber- 
ries, and  fruits. 

25.  The  CHIMPANZEE,  the  BABOON,  APE  and 
ORANG-OUTANG  are  smaller  than  the   Gorilla. 
The  Gorilla  and  Chimpanzee  have  both  been 
called  "  wild  men  of  the  woods." 

26.  The  common  MONKEY  has  a  flat  face 
and   long   tail ;    it    is    a   great    mimic,   quite 
ingenious   and  very  mischievous.      There  are 
many  varieties  of  monkeys.     Some  seem  to  be 
constantly    chattering,    crying,    jumping    and 
swinging,  while  others  are  grave  and  silent.     In 
some  parts  of  India  a  light-colored  monkey  is 
considered  sacred  by  the  natives. 

2.7.  Monkeys  in  South  America  have  a  curious  way  of 
crossing  a  stream.  One  holds  on  to  a  limb  of  a  tree,  and 
to  him  a  long  line  of  monkeys  will  fasten  themselves  by 
means  of  their  arms  and  tails.  When  the  line  is  long 
enough,  they  will  swing  themselves  until  the  one  at  the 
other  end  of  the  line  will  swing  across  to  a  tree  on  the 
opposite  bank,  and  take  hold  of  it ;  then  the  first  monkey 
lets  go,  and  all  swing  across. 

28.  The  Gorilla  and  Chimpanzee  are  found  in  the  for- 
ests of  Western  Africa :  the  Monkeys,  Apes,  etc.,  in  the 
warm  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  South  America,  and  on  the 
islands  southeast  of  Asia. 

29.  The  celebrated  traveler  Du  Chaillu  tells  some  very 
interesting  stories  about  Gorillas,  which  he  was  the  first  to 
capture. 


2io  A   Gorilla  Hunt. 

30.  Here  is  one :  "  One  day,  I  remember  well,  we  were 
out  for  Gorillas,  which  we  knew  were  to  be  found  there- 
abouts by  the  presence  of  a  certain  kind  of  fruit  of  which 
the  animal  is  fond. 

"We  beat  the  bush  for  two  hours,  when  suddenly  an 
immense  Gorilla  advanced  out  of  the  wood  straight  toward 
us,  and  gave  vent,  as  he  came  up,  to  a  terrible  howl  of 
rage,  as  much  as  to  say,  '  I  am  tired  of  being  pursued,  and 
will  face  you.' 

"  It  was  a  lone  male,  the  kind  which  is  always  most 
ferocious.  This  fellow  made  the  woods  resound  with  his 
roar,  which  is  really  an  awful  sound,  resembling  very  much 
the  rolling  and  muttering  of  distant  thunder. 

"  He  was  about  twenty  yards  or  steps  off  when  we  first 
saw  him.  We  at  once  gathered  together,  and  stood  in 
silence,  gun  in  hand. 

"  The  Gorilla  looked  at  us  for  a  minute  or  so  out  of  his 
evil  grey  eyes,  then  beat  his  breast  with  his  gigantic  arms 
— and  what  arms  he  had  ! — then  he  gave  another  howl  of 
defiance,  and  advanced  upon  us.  How  horrible  he  looked ! 
I  shall  never  forget  it. 

"Again  he  stopped,  not  more  than  fifteen  steps  or 
paces  away.  Again  he  advanced.  Now  he  was  not  twelve 
yards  off.  I  could  see  plainly  his  ferocious  face.  It  was 
distorted  with  rage ;  his  huge  teeth  ground  against  each 
other,  so  that  we  could  hear  the  sound ;  the  skin  of  his 
forehead  was  drawn  forward  and  back  rapidly,  which  made 
his  hair  move  up  and  down,  and  gave  a  hideous  expression 
to  his  face.  Once  more  he  gave  out  a  roar  which  seemed 
to  shake  the  woods  like  thunder.  Looking  us  in  the  eyes 
and  beating  his  broad  breast,  he  advanced  again. 

" '  Don't  fire  too  soon,'  said  one  of  my  hunters  ;  '  if  you 
do  not  kill  him,  he  will  kill  you.'  As  the  Gorilla  came  up, 


The  Elephant.  2 1 1 

4  Now !'  shouted  the  hunter,  and  before  the  Gorilla  could 
utter  the  roar  for  which  he  was  opening  his  mouth,  three 
musket  balls  were  in  his  body.  He  fell  dead  almost  with- 
out a  struggle. 

"He  was  a  monstrous  beast,  indeed,  although  not 
among  the  tallest.  His  height  was  five  feet  six  inches. 
His  arms  had  a  spread  of  over  seven  feet.  His  chest 
measured  fifty  inches  around.  His  arms  seemed  like 
immense  bunches  of  muscles  only ;  and  his  legs  and  claw- 
like  feet  were  well  fitted  for  grabbing,  climbing  and 
holding. 

"The  face  of  this  Gorilla  was  intensely  black.  His 
body  was  covered  with  gray  hair,  except  his  chest,  which 
was  bare.  While  the  animal  approached  us  in  his  fierce 
way,  walking  on  his  hind  legs  and  facing  us,  it  really 
seemed  to  me  to  be  a  horrible  likeness  of  a  man." 

31.  The  ELEPHANT  is  the  largest,  strongest, 
and  heaviest  quadruped,  or  four-footed  animal. 
His  body  is  covered  with  a  very  thick  hide, 
without  hair.  His  legs  are  thick  and  clumsy. 

.  32.  He  has  a  long  trunk  or  nose,  called  a 
proboscis  {pro-bos' sis),  which  can  lift  a  large  or 
a  small  object,  even  as  small  as  a  pin. 

33.  His  trunk  is  very  powerful.  It  is  his 
means  of  defence  and  offence ;  with  it  this 
enormous  creature  conveys  food  and  water  to 
his  mouth,  which  is  just  under  it  and  at  its  base. 
He  also  draws  water  into  his  trunk,  to  wash 
himself  with,  which  he  does  by  blowing  it  out 
all  over  him. 


Elephant. 

34.  His  two  long  tusks  of  ivory  project  from 
the  sides  of  his  mouth ;  with  these  he  digs  in 
the  ground  for  the  roots  and  vegetables  which 
constitute  his  principal  food.     He  is  also  fond 
of  sugar-cane. 

35.  The  Elephant  is  brave  and  affectionate; 

he  is  also  either  grateful  or 
revengeful,  according    as    he 
is  treated.      He   is  fond   of 
music.  In  India  he  has  been 
taught  to  hunt  the  tiger,  fight 
in  battles,  dance  and  perform 
Tiger  Hunting.        tricks  even  on  a   tight-rope. 
Some  elephants  live  to  be  one  hundred  years  old. 


Hippopota  mus — R  h  inoceros.          213 

36.  Another  very  large  animal,  one  that  is 
much  longer  than  the  elephant,  but  not  so  high, 
is  the  HIP-POPOT'A-MUS. 

37.  These  animals  are  quite  gentle,  except 
when  hungry ;  but  if  you  could  see  their  huge 
jaws  open  a  distance   of  two  feet   in  width, 
showing  teeth  a  foot  in  length,  you  would  be 
horrified,  especially  when  you   would  see  the 
immense  quantities  of  vegetable  food  they  re- 
quire. 

38.  The  warm  waters  of  the  Nile  and  other  rivers  of 
Africa  are  much  frequented  by  them ;  and  because  they  are 
able  to  live  either  on  the  land  or  in  the  water,  they  are 
said  to  be  am-phib'i-ous. 

39.  The    RHI-NOC'E-ROS   is,  like  the  hippo- 
potamus,  a  very   large,  slow,   stupid,  amphib- 
ious animal.     It  is 
distinguished  by  its 
short,     thick     legs, 
heavy     body,     and 
large,  curved   horn 
at   the   end   of    its 

Rhinoceros  and  Hippopotamus.        snOUt          ItS    hide    IS 

so  hard,  thick  and  folded  that  swords,  spears, 
bullets,  and  the  claws  of  the  lion  or  the  tiger 
nave  little  or  no  effect.  It  is  found  in  Africa, 
Asia,  Java  and  Sumatra.  The  weight  of  a  large 


214  Beaver — M^{,skrat. 

rhinoceros  is  about  three  tons ;  of  an  elephant, 
five  tons. 

40.  The  BEAVER,  also  an  amphibious  animal, 
is  remarkable  for  its  activity,  industry,  and  the 
wonderful  instinct  it  possesses  for  building  its 
house. 

41.  You  cannot  imagine  how  this  is  done.     They  com- 
mence by  cutting  or  rather  gnawing  down  trees,  their  only 
instrument  being  their  teeth.      They  cut  in  such  a  way 
that  the  trees  shall  fall  precisely  where  they  want  them. 
They  next  float  them  to  the  spot  where  they  intend  to  fix 
their  dwelling,  and  construct  a  dam.     They  always  select 
trees  which  are  up  stream,  so  that  the  logs  may  be  floated 
down  by  the  current. 

42.  After  the  dam  is  completed,  which  is  the  common 
property  of  the  beavers,  they  form  into  small  societies  and 
build  their  private   residences !     They  make  them  very 
strong,  by  a  sort  of  mortar  or  mud,  which  they  know  well 
how  to  mix.     They  are  therefore  masons  and  carpenters 
at  the  same  time.     This  work  is  all  done  at  night. 

43.  The  beavers  store  bark  for  food  in  these  houses, 
each   apartment  having  its  own  storehouse.     If   danger 
comes  to  them,  they  sound  the  alarm  with  their  tail,  giving 
one  to  four  blows. 

44.  The  beaver  inhabits  northern  Asia  and  America. 
It  lives  on  the  bank  of  a  stream,  has  webbed  hind  feet, 
and  is  an  excellent  swimmer  and  diver.     It  is  a  little 
larger  than  a  cat. 

45.  The  fur  of  the  beaver  is  very  valuable. 

46.  The    MUSKRAT   is    something   like   the 
beaver  in  its  size,  form,  habits  and  disposition, 


Squirrel— Ground  Mole.  215 

for  both  animals  live  in  companies  in  the  win- 
ter, build  houses  for  their  families,  and  are 
hunted  for  their  fur. 

47.  The  muskrat  does  not,  however,  lay  up  stores  for 
the  winter  like  the  beaver,  but  simply  makes  a  way  under 
the  snow  by  which  it  may  go  in  and  out  for  water  and  the 
roots  upon  which  it  feeds. 

48.  There  is  a  very  small  animal,  the  size  of  a  big,  fat 
mouse,  which  burrows  and  lives  in  the  ground  all  the  time. 
It  is  the  GROUND  MOLE. 

49.  Unlike  the  beaver  and  'the  muskrat,  it  keeps  always 
just  under  the  surface  of  the  ground :    and,  although  it 
annoys  farmers  by  raising  long  ridges  in  their  fields  and 
gardens,  it  does  more  good  than  harm  in  eating  up  worms 
and  insects. 

50.  There  is  another  very  industrious  little 
animal,  which  is  like  the  beaver  in  laying  up 
food  for  the  coming  winter,  in  the  shape  of  nuts 
and  acorns.     Do  any  of  you  know  its  name? 
Yes,  it  is  the  SQUIRREL.      It  makes  a  funny 
appearance  as  it  eats,  using  its  paws  for  hands, 
and  sitting  up  as  you  do  at  the  dinner-table. 

51.  Squirrels  are  found  in  almost  every  country  in  the 
world;   and  sometimes  they  will  migrate  by  thousands. 
(Migrate  means  to  seek  a  new  home). 

52.  It  is  said  that  neither  rocks  nor  rivers  nor  forests 
nor  mountains  will  stop  them ;  and  that  if  they  find  a  river 
too  wide  for  them  to  cross,  they  will  go  back  into  the 
forest  and  provide  themselves  each  with  a  piece  of  bark, 


Squirrel. 

and  then  they  put  out  to  sea,  making  their  tails  serve  as 
sail  and  rudder. 

53.  It  often  happens,  however,  that  they  have  ventured 
too  far,  and  cannot  contend  against  the  waves,  and  there- 
fore never  reach  the  other  side.     The  Laplanders  watch 
for  these  misfortunes  and  seize  them  as  a  prize,  not  only 
because  they  can  sell  their  skins,  but  for  their  flesh,  which 
is  good  for  food. 

54.  The  FLYING  SQUIRREL  is  provided  with  a  strip  of 
skin  which  it  spreads  out  to  enable  it  to  sail  or  glide  easily 
from  a  high  to  a  low  place  among  the  trees.     It  cannot 
use  this  wing-like  skin  as  birds  do.     It  seldom  ventures 
out  till  after  sunset. 

Besides  the  beaver,  muskrat  and  squirrel,  can  you  men- 
tion some  other  and  better  known  little  animals  which  are 
remarkable  for  gnawing  ?  Rats  and  mice. 

55.  The  PORCUPINE  which  is  about  eighteen  or  twenty 
inches  in  length,  also  prefers  the  night  for  its  movements. 


Porcupine —  Ca  mel.  2 1 7 


Blackboard  Drawing: :  Porcupine,  20  inches  long: ;  Flying-  Squir- 
rel, 15  inches  long*. 

It  is  very  active  in  searching  for  food,  which  consists  of 
roots,  fruit  and  bark.  It  is  remarkable  for  being  covered 
with  sharp,  strong  quills,  which  it  has  the  power  of 
straightening  out  in  all  directions,  when  attacked,  thus 
causing  great  damage  to  the  mouth  of  any  animal  bold 
enough  to  take  hold  of  it. 

56.  The  CAMEL  is  the  best  fitted  of  all  ani- 
mals  for   traveling   in   desert   places,  because, 
first,  it  can  take  a  week's  supply  of  water  in 
a  peculiar  arrangement  of  cells  connected  with 
the  stomach,  which  can  be  supplied  from  them 
when  the  animal  is  thirsty ;  secondly,  it  can  live 
on  the  scanty  herbage  of  the  desert;   thirdly, 
under  each  foot  is  a  large  cushion-shaped  sub- 
stance to  prevent  it  from  sinking  in  the  sand. 

57.  The  camel  has  been  called  the  "ship  of  the  desert." 
On  the  approach  of  a  sand-storm  in  the  desert,  when 
clouds  of  fine  sand  are  whirled  about  by  high  winds,  the 
camel  displays  great  sagacity  in  burying  his  nose  in  the 
sand  to  avoid  suffocation.     Its  flesh  and  milk  are  used  for 


A  Sand-storm  in  the  Desert.   The  Travelers  and  Camels  lie  on  the 
ground  for  a  few  minutes  until  the  Storm  has  passed  over. 

food,  its  skin  for  making  leather,  and  its  hair  for  making 
clothing;  therefore  the  camel  is  to  the  Arabs  what  the 
seal  is  to  the  Esquimaux,  and  the  reindeer  to  the  Lap- 
landers— their  chief  wealth. 

58.  Some  camels  have  one  hump  (the  Dromedary  or 
Arabian  Camel),  and  others  two 
(the  Bactrian  Camel  of  China  and 
Central  Asia).  The  former  is  the 
one  chiefly  used  in  Africa.  The 
latter  is  larger  and  is  used  more  as 
a  beast  of  burden  in  Asia. 

59.  A  similar  but  much  smaller 
Li  ma  animal  is  the  LLAMA,  found  in  the 

warm  parts  of  South  America.  It 
has  cushioned  feet,  but  no  hump,  like  the  camel.  Its 
flesh  and  milk  are  nourishing. 


Giraffe — Horse — Zebra. 


219 


60.  The  tallest   animal  in  the  world  is  the 
GIRAFFE  (ji-raf)  or  Ca-mero-pard,  which  be- 
longs to  the  deserts  of 

Africa. 

61.  It  is  especially  remark- 
able for  the  great  length,  of 
its  neck  and  fore-legs.      In 
the   absence   of    grass,   this 
animal  can  make  its  food  of 
the  leaves  of  the  trees. 

62.  There   is   a  beautiful 
animal    in   Southern    Africa 

which  is  about  the  size  and  shape  of  a  pony,  but  has 
black  and  yellow  stripes  running  around  its  body  and  legs. 
What  is  its  name?  ZEBRAS  run 
wild  in  herds  and  are  very  diffi- 
^  cult  to  tame. 


Giraffes. 


Zebras. 


63.  Which  is  the  most 
useful  animal  to  man  ?  The 
HORSE  is  found  in  almost 
every  country  in  the  world 
where  work  is  to  be  done; 

Arabia  has  long  been  celebrated  for  fine  horses. 

The  Arab  loves  and  treats  his  horses  as  if  they 

were  his  children. 

64.  There  is  an  animal  of  the  horse  kind  which  is  said 
to  be  the  most  obstinate  and  yet  the  most  patient  of  all 
animals;  what  is  it?  The  DONKEY  will,  however,  do 
more  work  for  the  smallest  pay  than  any  other  animal, 


220 


Tapir — Sloth. 


except,  perhaps,  the  camel.  Although  much  smaller  than 
a  horse,  he  will  take  you  on  long  journeys  and  over 
dangerous  places,  and  be  content  with  a  little  grass  or  even 
a  few  weeds.  Donkeys  are  very  useful  to  the  poor  people 

of  Africa,  Asia  and  Europe. 

65.  The  TAPIR  of   South 
•  America  is  all  black  or  dark 

brown,  and  looks  like  a  big 
fat  hog ;  and,  like  the  hog,  it 
delights  in  wallowing  in  the 
mud.  It  has  a  short  probos- 
cis or  trunk.  Its  height  is 
between  three  and  four  feet ; 
but  the  tapir  of  Asia  is  larger 
and  has  a  white  back. 

66.  Of  all  animals  the 
slowest    and    laziest    is 
said  to    be  the   SLOTH, 
which  lives  in  South  and 
Central  America. 

67.  While   some    animals 
and  people  too  are  idle  from 
choice,  this  poor  creature  is 
almost  helpless  ;  the  slightest 
movement   seems  to  give   it 

great  pain,  judging  from  the  piteous  cry  it  sets  up.  It  is 
therefore  to  be  pitied,  not  blamed.  To  take  fifty  steps 
would  require  a  whole  day.  The  sloth  is  about  the  size 
of  a  large  cat.  Its  hair  is  coarse,  its  arms  very  long,  and 
legs  short,  and  it  is  always  found  hanging  under  a  branch 
of  a  tree,  even  when  asleep.  It  makes  its  food  of  leaves, 
fruit,  and  bark.  Some  sloths  have  two  toes  or  claws  and 


Tapir,  length,  5  feet ;  Sloth, 
length,  18  inches. 


Opossum — A  rmadillo. 


Blackboard   Drawing-:    Opossum   and  her  Family.      Length   of 
body,  20  inches. 

others  three  on  each  arm  and  leg.     They  seldom  touch 
the  ground  unless  they  tumble. 

68.  Another  very  curious  little  animal  found  in  South 
America  is  the  ARMADILLO;  it  wears  a  kind  of  coat  of 
mail  or  hard,  horn-like  case,  into  which  it  can  retreat  as 
the  snail  or  the  turtle  does  when  it  is  attacked.  In  form, 
head,  and  tail,  it  resembles  a  very  big  rat,  but  it  is  as  long 
as  a  cat.  With  its  sharp  claws,  it  burrows  in  the  earth  for 
worms  and  roots.  Its  flesh  is  used  for  food. 

69.  There  is  another  animal  which  resembles  a  rat  and 
is  as  big  as  a  cat,  and  that  is  the  OPOSSUM,  which  lives 
in  North  and  South  America.  It  usually  hides  away  in 
the  daytime  in  hollow  trees  or  in  the  ground,  and  steals 
out  at  night  in  search  of  food — berries,  fruit,  eggs,  birds, 
etc. ;  sometimes,  too,  killing  chickens  to  suck  their  blood. 
It  is  very  sly ;  when  caught,  it  will  make  believe  dead  and 
cunningly  watch  its  opportunity  to  escape;  this  is  the 
origin  of  the  expression  "  playing  'possum."  This  animal 
can  cling  tightly  to  the  branch  of  a  tree  by  means  of  its 
long,  strong  tail,  which  it  winds  around  it  when  it  wants 
to  gather  fruit  or  to  seize  a  little  bird  for  its  supper ;  but 


222 


Kangaroo — White  Bear. 


Kang-aroos. 


one  of  the  funniest  sights  is  that  of  a  mother  opossum 
running  off  with  all  her  young  ones  on  her  back  holding 
on  by  their  tails,  as  shown  in  the  blackboard  drawing. 

70.  The  animal  which  is  remarkable  for  leap- 
ing or  springing  is  the 

KANGAROO,  of  Australia. 

71.  Its  fore-legs  are  short 
and  like  arms,  while  its  lower 
limbs  are  very  long,  thus  ena- 
bling it  to  take  leaps  or  bounds, 
upwards    of    twenty    feet    in 
length.      Its   head   resembles 
that  of  a  deer.    Its  tail  assists 

it  in  sitting — and  is  so  powerful  that  a  blow  from  it  has 
been  known  to  break  the  legs  of  a  man. 

72.  When  sitting,  a  full-grown  kangaroo  is  as  tall  as  a 
man.     It  is  hunted  for  its  skin  and  flesh. 

73.  Like  some  opossums,  it  has  a  pouch  or  pocket  into 
which  its  young  take  refuge  when  alarmed. 

74.  A  bear  is  more  at  home  in  a  cold  coun- 

try and  more  com- 
fortable in  cold 
weather.  The 
WHITE  or  POLAR 
BEAR  lives  among 

A  White  Bear  captures  a  Seal.          icebergs    and    feeds 

chiefly  on  fishes  and  seals. 

75.  White  bears  are  fierce  and  strong ;  and, 


The  White  or  Polar  Bear.  223 


Esquimaux  with  their  dog-s,  capturing  a  White  Bear  for  his  fur 
and  flesh.  Near  the  Icebergs  are  Walruses,  which  are  hunted 
for  their  flesh,  oil,  skin,  and  tusks  of  ivory. 

like  all  other  bears,  have  powerful  paws  and 
long,  sharp  claws  with  which  they  soon  tear 
another  animal  or  a  man  to  pieces.  Savage 
and  dangerous  as  they  are,  the  Esquimaux  of 
the  Arctic  Regions  hunt  and  capture  them 
with  dogs  and  sharp  spears. 

76.  The  flesh  of  these  animals  is  used  for 
food,  but  their  chief  value  lies  in  the  long 
white  furs.  Perhaps  some  of  you  have  seen 
such  skins  or  robes  in  sleighs. 


224          Black  Bear — Grizzly  Bear. 

77.  The   common   BLACK  BEAR  of  North 
America  and  the  BROWN  BEAR  of  Europe  are 
very  much  alike.     They  prefer  the  mountain 
districts.     They  are  not  so  large  nor  so  fierce 
as  some  other  bears,  but  when  attacked,  they 
rise  upon  their  hind  feet  and,  if  not  promptly 
dispatched  with  the  long  knife  or  the  bullet, 
the  assailant  is  at  once  hugged  to  death  with 
their  powerful  arms  or  torn  to  shreds  by  their 
sharp  claws. 

78.  Their  food  consists  of  flesh,  wheat,  corn,  roots  and 
vegetables ;  they  are  very  fond  of  honey,  often  climbing 
high  trees  in  search  of  it. 

79.  The  CINNAMON  BEAR  of  Colorado  and  the  region 
west  of  it,  is  named  on  account  of  its  color,  which  is  a 
yellowish  red. 

80.  The  most  savage  of  all  is  the  GRIZZLY 
BEAR,  whose    home  is  in   the    Rocky  Moun- 
tains.    Grizzly  means  somewhat  gray. 

8 1.  Its  strength  and  endurance  are  very  great, 
for  it  has  been  known  to  kill  and  carry  off  a 
buffalo,   to   chase    a   man    for   long   distances, 
capture   and    devour   him.      When    overtaken 
by  hunters,  and  after  receiving  several  of  their 
bullets,  it  makes  desperate  efforts  to  escape  by 
running  and  swimming. 

82.  In  winter,  some  bears  hide  themselves  in  caves, 


Wolf. 


Bear. 


Am.  Buffalo  or  Bison. 


Blackboard  drawing-  of  Wolf's  head,  1O  inches  long1 ;  of  Bear's 
head,  15  inches;  of  Buffalo's  head,  24  inches.    (Full  size.) 

hollow  logs,  and  holes  in  the  ice  or  snow,  and  pass  several 
weeks  in  a  kind  of  sleep. 

83.  The   affection  of  bears  for  their  young  is  very 
remarkable.     When  one  of  her  cubs  is  shot,  the  grief  and 
cries  of  the  mother,  her  frantic  efforts  to  arouse  it,  and 
her  refusal  to  leave  it  even  when  the  bullets  are  whistling 
past,  show  her  anxiety  for  her  cub  to  be  far  greater  than 
that  for  herself. 

84.  DEER  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  world, 
— in  cold,  hot  and  temper- 
ate regions  ;  in  forest,  jun- 
gle,   swamp    and    prairie, 

— except  in  Australia. 

85.  Deer  are  not  savage 

like  bears,  but  very  timid.  Deer  and  Buffalo  on  the 
Whenever  their  keen  sight,  Prairie, 

hearing  or  scent  detects  the  approach  of  an 
enemy  it  is  off  with  the  speed  of  a  race-horse. 
When  pursued,  it  usually  takes  refuge  in  a  lake 
or  a  stream. 


Blackboard  drawing-  of  a  Reindeer  (length  7  feet),  and  Sledge 
of  a  Laplander. 

86.  Like  the  buffaloes,  they  are  hunted  for  their  flesh, 
skins,  and  horns,  but  often  only  for  sport. 

87.  The  most  useful  of  these  animals  is  the 
REINDEER,  which  is  a  domestic  animal  in  parts 
of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  constitutes  the  chief 
wealth  of  the  Laplander  of  Northern  Europe. 
His   herds   supply  him  with   milk,  flesh   and 
materials  for  clothing,  and  some  of  these  ani- 
mals are  trained  to  drag  his  sledge  swiftly  and 
for  long  distances  over  the  frozen  snow. 

88.  In  summer  the  reindeer  lives  on  the  scanty  herbage 
and  shrubs  of  those  regions,  and  in  winter,  on  the  mosses 
which  lie  under  the  deep  snow.     These  mosses  are  dis- 
covered by  his  sharp  scent,  and  he  is  able  to  dig  down  to 
them  through  the  snow,  by  means  of  his  great  branching 
horns.     Some  reindeer  are  wild  and  live  in  large  herds. 

89.  Herd  is  a  number  of  animals  assembled  together, 
as  a  herd  of  cattle,  oxen,  horses,  camels,  deer,  elephants, 
or  swine  ;  flock  refers  chiefly  to  smaller  animals  and  birds, 


Deer — Hyena.  227 

as  sheep,  goats,  or  pigeons;  drove  is  a  number  of  cattle 
driven  to  market. 

90.  Deer  and  some  other  animals  chew  the  cud ;  that 
is,  when  grazing,  they  only  partly  chew  the  food  before 
swallowing  it,  and,  when  they  afterwards  lie  down  or  stand 
still,  they  bring  up  the  same  food  into  their  mouths  again 
to  chew  and  swallow  it  a  second  time.     Such  animals  are 
called  Ruminating  or  Cud-chewing  animals.     They  gen- 
erally have  horns  and  cloven  or  divided  hoofs.     They 
include  the  cow,  ox,  deer,  camel,  giraffe,  goat,  sheep  and 
buffalo. 

91.  Animals  of  the  deer-kind  include  the  Antelope  and 
Gazelle  of  Africa  and  Arabia,  the  Chamois  (sham' me  or 
sham-moi')  of  the  Alps,  and  the  Moose  of  North  America. 

92.  The  HYENA  is  a  savage  and  untamable  animal  of 
Africa  and  the  warm  parts  of  Asia.     It  looks  like  a  very 
large  dog.     Its  teeth  are  wonderfully  strong.     It  eats  the 
flesh  and  bones  of  dead  animals. 


REVIEW    OF    CHAPTER    XIX. 

What  is  a  quadruped  ?    A  four-footed  animal. 

What  quadrupeds  are  most  used  for  food  ? 

From  which  do  we  get  Beef?  Pork  ?  Mutton?  Veal  ?  Veni- 
son ? 

From  what  animals  do  we  get  furs?  Bear,  buffalo,  beaver,  seal, 
squirrel,  fox  and  wolf. 

About  how  much  of  the  body  of  the  ox  or  cow  kind  is  used  in 
one  way  or  another  ?  Six-sevenths. 

What  is  its  flesh  used  for?  Food.  Its  skin?  For  making 
leather.  Its  bones  ?  They  are  ground  and  used  for  fertilizing  the 
soil. 

What  are  made  from  the  horns  ?     Buttons,  knife-handles,  etc. 


228  Review  of  Animals. 

What  places  are  celebrated  for  great  numbers  of  cattle  ?  South 
America,  Mexico  and  Texas. 

How  are  the  cattle  caught  on  the  pampas  and  prairies?  By 
means  of  the  lasso.  What  is  a  lasso  ?  How  is  it  used  ? 

How  is  the  American  Buffalo  hunted?  Where?  Of  what  use 
;s  it?  What  is  the  difference  between  the  American  Buffalo 
(Bison)  and  the  Buffalo  of  Asia? 

What  is  the  difference  between  a  wild  and  a  domestic  animal  ? 
Mention  some  wild  animals — domestic  animals. 

What  animal  is  most  familiar  with  people?  Mention  some 
kinds  of  Dogs.  What  wild  animals  resemble  the  Dog?  What 
animal  is  said  to  be  the  most  sly  and  cunning  ?  Fox.  Which  is 
the  most  savage  animal  of  the  dog-kind  ?  Wolf.  What  very 
savage  animal  somewhat  resembles  the  Dog  ?  Hyena. 

What  animal  is  called  the  " King  of  Beasts?"  Where  does  the 
Lion  live?  To  what  kind  or  division  of  animals  does  it  belong? 
The  cat-kind.  Why?  Because, like  the  Cat,  it  has  sharp  claws,  round 
head,  short  ears,  and  long  -whiskers  ;  springs  upon  its  prey,  and  seeks 
its  food  mostly  at  night. 

What  other  animals  belong  to  the  cat-kind?  Tiger,  Leopard, 
Jaguar,  Puma,  and  Lynx. 

In  what  division  of  the  Earth  is  the  Lion  found  ?  The  Tiger  ? 
The  Leopard  ?  The  Jaguar  ?  How  is  the  Leopard  easily  distin- 
guished from  the  Tiger?  The  Tiger  is  striped ;  the  Leopard  is 
spotted.  What  kind  of  food  do  animals  of  the  dog  and  cat  kinds 
prefer?  Flesh. 

What  animals  mostly  resemble  man?  Gorilla  and  Chimpanzee. 
In  what  part  of  the  world  are  they  found  ?  To  what  kind  or  divi- 
sion of  animals  do  they  belong?  The  monkey-kind. 

Name  some  of  the  differences  between  the  monkey-kind  and 
man-kind  ?  The  monkey-kind  is  very  ugly,  has  four  hands  instead 
of  two  hands  and  two  feet,  smaller  brain,  larger  jaw,  longer  arms, 
body  covered  with  hair  and  adapted  only  to  a  hot  climate. 

What  animals  belong  to  the  monkey-kind  ?  Where  are  Monkeys 
numerous?  South  America,  Asia  and  Africa.  What  can  you  say 
of  the  Monkey?  How  does  a  Gorilla  act  when  attacked ? 

Which  is  the  largest  and  heaviest  quadruped  ?  Elephant.  Which 
is  the  tallest?  Giraffe.  How  much  taller  is  the  Giraffe  than  the 


Review  of  Animals.  229 


Elephant  ?  (P.  232.)  How  does  the  Elephant  use  his  trunk  ?  What 
constitute  his  food?  How  does  he  obtain  it?  What  kind  of  a 
disposition  has  he?  Is  he  intelligent  and  obedient  ?  What  have 
some  been  taught  to  do?  To  what  age  do  some  Elephants  live? 
What  is  the  most  valuable  part  of  the  Elephant  ?  What  are  made 
of  ivory?  What  Birds  are  said  to  live  as  long  as  an  Elephant? 
Swan  and  Cockatoo. 

What  very  large  quadruped  is  longer  than  the  Elephant  ?  Hip- 
popotamus. Where  and  how  does  the  Hippopotamus  live?  Does 
it  live  on  flesh,  or  vegetables  ? 

What  very  large  animal  is  noted  for  its  thick,  tough  skin  ? 
Rhinoceros.  Describe  the  Rhinoceros.  What  can  you  say  of  its 
skin?  Where  is  the  Rhinoceros  found  ? 

What  is  an  amphibious  animal  ? 

What  animal  is  noted  for  its  activity  and  industry?  Beaver. 
Does  it  always  live  on  the  land?  What  wonderful  instinct  does 
it  possess  ?  What  kind  of  a  place  do  Beavers  select  in  which  to 
build  their  houses  ?  Where  do  they  cut  trees  for  that  purpose,  up 
or  down  stream  ?  Why  do  they  always  cut  trees  which  are  up 
stream  ?  With  what  do  they  cut  them  ?  How  do  they  make  their 
houses  tight  and  strong?  When  do  they  mostly  work  ?  For  what 
are  Beavers  hunted  ?  What  is  the  size  of  a  Beaver  ?  Where  is  it 
found  ?  What  can  you  say  of  its  hind  feet  ? 

What  animal  resembles  a  Beaver  in  its  size  and  habits  ?  Musk-rat. 

What  small  animals  besides  the  Beaver  lays  up  food  for  winter? 
Squirrels.  What  and  how  do  Squirrels  eat?  Do  they  always  live 
in  one  place  ?  For  what  are  they  valuable  ? 

What  animal  is  protected  from  the  attacks  of  other  animals  by 
sharp  quills  ?  Porcupine.  By  a  hard  shell  ?  Armadillo. 

What  animal  is  best  fitted  for  traveling  in  the  deserts  ?  Camel. 
What  are  some  of  its  advantages  ?  How  does  it  compare  in 
height  with  the  Elephant  ?  With  the  Giraffe  ?  With  the  Horse  ? 
What  two  kinds  of  Camels  are  there  ?  For  what  is  each  mostly 
used?  Where  does  each  live  chiefly?  What  smaller  animal, 
similar  to  the  Camel,  is  found  in  South  America? 

What  animal  is  mostly  used  by  men  for  work  and  pleasure  ? 
Horse.  What  useful  animal  resembles  the  Horse?  Donkey.  What 
can  you  say  of  the  Donkey's  disposition  ? 


230          Review — Spelling — Writing. 

What  wild  animals  of  South  America  resemble  a  pony  in  form 
and  size  ?  Zebra  and  Quagga.  How  do  they  differ  in  appearance 
from  the  pony  ?  They  are  striped. 

Which  is  called  the  laziest  animal  ?  Sloth.  Where  is  it  found  ? 
How  does  it  live  ?  What  does  it  eat  ?  What  is  its  length  ? 

What  animal  about  the  size  of  a  Cat  is  noted  for  cunning, 
especially  when  captured  ?  Opossum.  How  does  it  get  its  food  ? 
In  what  curious  manner  does  it  travel  with  its  young  ? 

What  animal  is  remarkable  for  its  springing  or  jumping?  Kan- 
garoo, Where  does  the  Kangaroo  live  ?  In  Australia.  How  does 
it  defend  itself?  For  what  is  it  hunted  ? 

What  animal  prefers  cold  countries?  Bear.  Which  is  the 
largest  and  most  savage  kind  ?  White  or  Polar  Bear.  How  does 
it  live  ?  For  what  is  it  valuable  ?  In  what  parts  of  the  world  is  it 
found  ?  In  the  Arctic  Regions.  What  kinds  of  Bears  are  in  this 
country  ?  Grizzly,  Black,  and  Cinnamon  Bears.  Which  is  the  most 
savage  of  them?  Grizzly  Bears.  What  can  you  say  of  their 
strength  and  endurance ?  How  do  some  bears  pass  the  winter? 
Are  Bears  affectionate  to  their  young  ?  Give  an  instance. 

What  animals  with  large  horns  are  hunted  in  nearly  every  part 
of  the  world  ?  Deer.  How  do  they  often  save  themselves  when 
hunted  ?  What  animals  constitute  the  whole  wealth  of  Lapland- 
ers ?  Reindeer.  Where  do  Laplanders  live  ?  In  the  most  northern 
parts  of  Europe. 

What  is  a  Ruminating  or  Cud-chewing  animal  ?  Name  some 
of  them. 


SPELLING    AND     WRITING     EXERCISE. 

ANIMALS  WHICH  MOST  RESEMBLE  MAN: 


ANIMALS  OF  THE  MONKEY-KIND  (FOUR-HANDED  INSTEAD   OF 
FOUR-FOOTED)  : 


Rev  iew — Spelling —  Writing.         2  3 1 

ANIMALS   OF   THE   DOG-KIND: 

op 

C/ 


*^  C/^  Wac 


THE  CAT-KIND: 


EATERS   OF   FLESH  : 


f 

EATERS  OF  GRASS,  AND  CUD-CHEWERS,  WITH  HORNS  AND  CLOVEN 
HOOFS  (TWO  TOES): 


GNAWERS : 


v 

$%€t*ue*& 
•   :  X 

ANIMALS   WITH   FOUR   SOLID   HOOFS: 

^ 


AMPHIBIOUS   ANIMALS  : 


The  Frog,  Toad,  Alligator  and  Crocodile  (reptiles)  are  ?lso  amphibious. 


Comparative  Size  of  Animals.        233 

rv.   fv' 


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234 


Insects. 


Insects:   Common  House-fly,  Mosquito,  Butterfly,  Beetle, 
Caterpillar,  Grasshopper. 

CHAPTER    XX. 

ABOUT  INSECTS. 

1.  INSECTS  are  everywhere  about  us.     They 
are   in   great   numbers   and   of  great   variety. 
They  are  in  the  air,  in  the  water,  and  all  over 
the  Earth. 

2.  Those  we  know  the  best  are  the  HOUSE- 
FLY, the  BUTTERFLY,  the  MOSQUITO,  the  CAT 
ERPILLAR,  the  GRASSHOPPER,  and  the  BEETLE. 

3.  Besides  these,  there  are  thousands  upon 
thousands  so  small  that  they  cannot  be  seen 
with  the  naked  eye.     There  is  scarcely  a  leaf 
on  a  tree  that  is  not  the  home  of  myriads  of 
these  little  beings. 

4.  If  you  should  look  at  a  drop  of  water  with 
the  aid  of  a  microscope,  you  would  be  amazed 


Caterpillar —  Chrysalis. 


Caterpillar.  Cocoon.  Butterfly. 

Blackboard  Drawing :  An  Insect  and  its  Changes. 

to  see  the  number  and  variety  of  living  crea- 
tures which  it  contains;  some  swimming  like 
fish  or  eels,  some  jumping  like  frogs,  and  some 
dragging  their  bodies  lazily  along. 

5.  Just  think  of  ten  thousand  (10,000)  occupying  the 
space  of  a  grain  of  sand.     Creatures  which  are  so  small 
as  to  be  invisible,  or  nearly  so,  to  the  naked  eye,  are  called 
An-i-mal'cules. 

6.  Insects  are  of  many  kinds ;  some  have  to 
creep  about  all  their  lives ;   some  creep  only 
for  a  little  while,  like  the  Caterpillar,  and  then 
undergo  changes,  taking  to  themselves  beauti- 
ful wings. 

7.  The  CATERPILLAR  is  the  form  which  the 
insect  takes  just  after  leaving  the  egg ;  after  a 
while  it  spins  or   makes  for  itself  a  kind   of 
case  or  covering,  called  a  cocoon  ;   the  insect 
is  then  called  a  Chrysalis.     After  remaining  a 


236  Destructiveness  of  Insects. 

while  thus  enclosed,  this  cocoon  bursts  open, 
and  out  comes  a  beautiful  Butterfly,  changed 
from  what  was,  only  a  short  time  before,  a  slow, 
crawling,  and  repulsive  looking  Worm. 

8.  So,  you  see  that  the  forms  and  changes  of  such 
Insects  are — ist,  the  Egg;  20!,  the  Worm,  Grub  or  Cater- 
pillar ;  36,  the  Chrysalis ;  and  4th,  the  Butterfly,  or  perfect 
Insect. 

9.  Some  kinds  of  Insects  are  very  trouble- 
some and  often  do  great  damage  to  trees  and 
plants.     You  all  know  how  soon  one  or  two 
Caterpillars  can  eat  up  all  the  leaves  of  a  little 
plant  or  bush  in  your  garden,  and  that  swarms 
of  GRASSHOPPERS  or   LOCUSTS  have  in  a  few 
hours  eaten  up  acres  upon  acres  of  growing 
corn,  besides  grass  and  vegetables. 

10.  The  increase  in  the  numbers  of  Insects  is 
wonderfully  rapid;   indeed,  if  it  were   not  for 
the  multitudes  of  the  busy  birds  whose  food 
consists  wholly  or  mainly  of  Insects,  man  might 
be  unable  to  prevent  the  entire  destruction  of 
his  orchards  and  his  crops. 

11.  Great  numbers  of  Insects  are  devoured  by  other 
Insects,  and  also  by  Toads,  Frogs,  and  Ground  Moles. 

12.  You  must  not  think,  however,  that  all 
Insects,    Caterpillars   and    Butterflies    are   our 
enemies,  for  there  are  some  kinds  that  are  con- 
stantly at  work  for  us. 


Silkworm —  Cock  ineaL  237 

13.  All  the  beautiful  silk  dresses,  handker- 
chiefs and  ribbons  are  made  from  the  material 
which  formed  the  case  or  cocoon  of  a  Cater- 
pillar, called  the  SILKWORM. 

14.  The  SILKWORM  is  hatched  from  an  egg  about  the 
size  of  a  mustard  seed ;  it  eats  the  leaves  of  the  mulberry 
tree,  its  only  food,  and  grows  rapidly.     In  two  or  three 
weeks  it  begins  to  spin  a  very  fine  silken  thread,  which  it 
winds  round  and  round  itself  until  a  ball,  the  size  and 
shape  of  a  pigeon's  egg,  is  formed. 

15.  When  it  is  done  spinning,  the  silk  must  be  carefully 
and  promptly  unwound,  or  the  Butterfly  would  burst  the 
cocoon   and   thus   spoil   the   silk.     To   prevent   this  th(s 
cocoons  are  sometimes  placed  in  hot  water  or  in  a  hot 
oven,  to  kill  the  worm.     By  means  of  steam  or  hot  vapor, 
the   threads   are   loosened   so   that   they  may  be   easily 
unwound  and  the   Silkworm   saved.     The   manufacturer 
usually  puts  ten  or  twelve  of  these  threads  together  to 
make  one  which  would  be  strong  enough  for  use  in  the 
factory. 

1 6.  It  is  not  a  little  singular  that  this  beautiful  article 
thus   made   by  one   Insect    receives   its   bright    crimson 
and  scarlet  colors  from  another,  the  COCHINEAL  BUG  of 
Mexico. 

17.  The  SILKWORM  is  raised  chiefly  in  China,  Japan, 
France,  Italy,  and  California.     The  Silkworm  and  other 
Caterpillars   breathe   through   several   openings   in  their 
sides. 

1 8.  Next  to  the  Silkworm,  the  Insect  which  is  the  most 
useful  to  man  is  the  BEE,  which  gives  us  delicious  honey. 
This  the  Bees  gather  from  nearly  all  flowers,  and  store 
away  in  nice  little  waxen  cells,  all  of  their  own  making. 


238  Bees — How    They    Work. 

19.  HONEY-BEES   are   of   three   kinds:    the 
Queens,  the  Working-bees,  and  the  Drones. 

20.  The  QUEEN-BEE  is  the  ruler  of  the  hive — 

and  the  mother  of  all  the  young 
Bees  in  it. 

21.  The  WORKERS  are  very 
intelligent  and  industrious.  They 
form  themselves  into  companies. 
One  division  or  company  roams  the  fields  and 
gardens  in  search  of  food ;  another  builds  the 
cells ;  another  helps  those  which  come  back 
with  heavy  loads,  or  feed  and  nurse  the  young 
Bees.  All  make  the  most  of  their  time,  and 
of  every  inch  of  room,  for  their  house  answers 
both  as  nursery  and  storehouse.  There  are  also 
house-cleaners,  sentinels  and  fighters.  Even  in 
a  single  day  they  have  been  known  to  make 
4,000  cells. 

22.  The  royal  cell  which  they  build  for  their  Queen,  is 
made  much  larger  than  any  of  the  others. 

23.  When  the  cells  are  ready,  the  Queen  lays  in  them  a 
great  many  eggs,  from  each  of  which  comes  a  larva,  grub, 
or  worm  (see  paragraph  8).     The  food  of  bees  consists 
chiefly  of  pollen  and  sweet  juices  or  fluids  of  flowers. 

24.  The  WORKERS  have  little   brushes   on  their  legs 
which  also  hold  the  pollen  and  otherwise  help  them  in 
their  work.     They  have  feelers  or  arms  which  enable  them 
to  work  and  feel  their  way  in  the  dark.     By  these  feelers 
they  seem  to  tell  one  another  the  news  of  the  day.     If  the 


Bees — Their  Uses — Wasp — Hornet.    239 

Queen  should  die  they  select  a  young  grub,  which  soon 
becomes  their  Queen.  When  the  Queen  and  a  number  of 
her  household  agree  to  emigrate  and  form  a  new  colony  or 
"swarm,"  they  select  a  new  home,  gather  food,  and  make 
full  preparations  for  the  change.  After  bidding  farewell 
to  their  brothers  and  sisters  which  remain  in  the  old 
home,  they  fly  away.  Those  left  behind  must  select  a 
new  Queen  or  they  all  would  die. 

25.  The  DRONES  (all  males)  are  very  lazy.     They  col- 
lect no  honey,  make  no  wax,  build  no  cells.      Most  of 
them  do  nothing  but  eat  honey  which  the  workers  collect. 
So,  as  winter  comes  on,  the  Workers  get  out  of  patience 
with  their  idleness  and  fly  at  them,  sting  them  to  death, 
and  at  once  remove  the  dead  bodies  from  the  hive. 

26.  The  Working-bees  live  for  several  years.     They 
are  smaller  and  more  numerous  than  the  others.     In  a 
hive  of  20,000  Bees,  the  Workers  will  number  about  19,500. 
There  is  only  one  Queen  for  every  hive.    The  Workers  are 
assisted  in  building  by  a  gummy  or  sticky  substance  which 
they  gather  from  some  trees.     A  Bee  has  four  wings  and 
six  legs,  and  a  kind  of  tongue  or  proboscis  for  gathering 
honey.     All  but  the  Drones  have  stings. 

27.  Bees,  by  going  from  flower  to  flower,  gathering  and 
mixing  the  pollen   or  powder-like  substance  of   flowers, 
increase  the  varieties  of  fruits,  flowers  and  plants,  and  in 
this  way,  also,  they  are  of  great  advantage  to  us.     This 
last  work  seems  to  be  all  the  HUMBLE  BEE  is  good  for. 
It  lays  up  no  store  of  honey,  usually  builds  in  holes  in  the 
ground,  and  lives  but  one  year.     It  does  not  associate 
with  the  Honey  or  Hive  Bee. 

28.  The  WASP  and  HORNET  are  somewhat  similar  to 
the  Bee.     They  build  and  live  in  little  cells  of  a  paper- 


240     Ants — How  They  Live  and  Work. 

like  substance,  which  they  make  from  bark  and  plants. 
They  have  sharp  stings,  but  do  not  gather  honey  or  make 
wax  like  the  Honey  Bee. 

29.  ANTS  resemble  Bees  in  their  habits  of 
order  and  industry,  and  in  being  divided  into 
three  kinds,  Males,  Females,  and  Workers. 

30.  The  ANT  WORKERS  have  charge  of  the 
eggs,  cocoons,  and  young  Ants,  as  well  as  of 
the  house  affairs. 

31.  If  overtaken  by  a  storm,  or  if  their  nests  should  be 
destroyed,  their  first  duty  is  to  save  their  eggs  or  young, 
and  they  are  seen  running  to  and  fro  with  these  little 
things  in  their  mouths  in  search  of  places  of  safety  for 
them.     The  workers  have  no  wings ;  the  others  have  for 
a  time,  but  soon  lose  them. 

32.  The  COMMON  ANTS  are  the  Red  and  the 
Black ;  some  have  wings,  others  have  none. 

33.  Ants  of  the  same  family  or  kind  live 
together  in  great  harmony,  and  are  never  weary 
of  helping  each  other.     If  one  is  tired  or  sick, 
another  will  take  him  upon  his  back  and  ten- 
derly carry  him. 

34.  Although  these  little  creatures  make  no  sound,  they 
seem  to  understand  each  other  perfectly.     By  means  of 
their  feelers  they  give  orders,  directions  and  invitations, 
call  for  food,  or  discuss  family  affairs. 

35.  Their  little  jaws  are  hard  and  sharp,  serving  them 
as  axe,  scissors,  pincers  and  sword. 


Grasshoppers — Locusts,  Etc.          241 

36.  Ants  come  forth  in  myriads  about  the 
first  of  April.     Four  or  five  months  of  the  year 
that  the  Ant  is  supposed  to  live,  some  kinds 
spend  in  a  torpid  state. 

37.  Battles  are  sometimes  fought  between  the  different 
families  or  tribes,  desperate  battles,  too;  for  although  of 
a  peaceful  nature,  they  will  not   submit  to  imposition. 
Some  are  very  thievish  and  do  not  stop  with  stealing  the 
food  of  a  neighboring  tribe,  but  they  seize  also  their  eggs 
or  their  young  ones,   and   carry  them   into   captivity  to 
become  slaves  to  them.     Then  the  injured  Ants  levy  war. 
They  form   themselves   into   companies,  battalions,  and 
divisions,   and  station   sentinels  as   soldiers   do.      Army 
meets  army,  they  fight  bravely  and  desperately ;  they  kill 
and  wound  each  other,  punish  spies  and  deserters,  carry 
off  prisoners  and  spoils,  and  when  the  battle  is  over  they 
take  care  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

38.  The  GRASSHOPPER  is  of  the  same  order 
of  Insects  as  the  Locust,  Cricket  and  Katydid, 
having  long  bodies,  four  wings,  and  three  pairs 
of  legs.     Their  food  is  grass  and  the  leaves  of 
plants. 

39.  Grasshoppers  are  of  great  variety ;  some 
/are   green,   some  black,  and    some  variegated. 

Some  make  a  chirping  sound  and  some  are 
always  silent. 

40.  Their  hind  legs  are  much  longer  and  stronger  than 
the   others,   and   are    admirably    fitted  for   jumping    or 
leaping. 


242  Grasshopper — Locust,  Etc. 

41.  It  is  the  male  Grasshopper  which  does  all  the 
chirping.  He  does  not,  however,  chirp  or  sing  as  a  bird 
does,  with  his  voice  or  his  throat.  He  makes  his  peculiar 
sound  with  his  wings,  and  partly,  some  people  say,  with 
his  legs  and  a  kind  of  little  drum  or  cymbal. 

42.  In  the  autumn,  the  mother  Grasshopper  bores  or 
digs  little  holes  in  the  ground  and  lays  a  great  many  eggs 
in  them,  and  on  the  approach  of  frost  she  dies.  The  eggs 
remain  there  all  winter  and  are  hatched  out  by  the  warm 
sun  of  spring.  For  a  while  the  young  ones  hop  only,  and 
seem  to  be  without  wings,  but  these  are  really  concealed 
on  their  sides  and  appear  when  the  time  comes. 

43.  LOCUSTS  are  the  most  destructive  of  this 
kind  of  Insects.     They  fly  in  vast  numbers,  like 
clouds  which  hide  the  sun,  and  come  down  on 
the  growing  crops  of  spring  as  fast  and  as  num- 
berless as  snowflakes  in  a  winter's  stonn. 

44.  Their  visits  in  Western  Asia  and  Northern  Africa 
are  terrible,  for  they  are  sure  to  leave  famine  and  desola- 
tion behind  them.     The  Locusts,  called  also  Grasshop- 
pers, which  they  resemble,  have  at  times  done  great  dam- 
age to  the  corn  of  some  of  our  Northwestern  States  and 
Territories. 

45.  Locusts  are  sold  in  the  markets  of  Europe,  Asia 
and  Africa  as  an  article  of  food. 

46.  The  "SEVENTEEN-YEAR  LOCUST "  (more 
correctly  called  HARVEST  FLY)  has  a  thicker 
body  and  shorter  legs  than  the  Locust  or  the 
Grasshopper.     It  flies,  but  does  not  leap. 


Harvest  Fly — Cricket — Mosquito.     243 

47.  These  Insects  lay  their  eggs  in  the  twigs  of  trees, 
and  then  die.     From  the  eggs  are  hatched,  during  the 
same  summer,  little  six-legged  worms,  so   small   that  it 
would  take  sixteen  of  them  to  measure  one  inch  in  length. 
These  remain  in  the  ground  seventeen  years,  feeding  on 
the  juices  of  roots.     At  the  end  of  that  time  they  enclose 
themselves  in  a  shell  or  case,  then  crawl  up  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees,  to  which  they  cling  until  their  shell 
or  dry  skin  bursts  open ;  and,  finding  themselves  provided 
with  wings,  they  fly  away. 

48.  CRICKETS  belong  to  the  same  order  of 
Insects  as  the  Locusts  and  Grasshoppers.   They 
can  dig  underground  passages  for  themselves, 
and  their  long  hind  legs  enable  them  to  take 
long  leaps. 

49.  House   Crickets   and   Field   Crickets   are   deadly 
enemies  to  each  other;   in  fact,  Crickets   generally  are 
very  quarrelsome  and  are  always  ready  for  a  fight.     In 
Germany,  mis'chievous  boys  get  up  pitched  battles  between 
them,  when  these  warlike  Insects  kick  like  horses,  butt 
like  rams,  and  scratch  like  cats,  until  one  or  the  other 
runs  away  or  is  disabled. 

50.  One  of  the  most  annoying  Insects  is  the 
MOSQUITO,  which  has  a  long,  slender  body,  six 
legs,  and  two  wings.     It  has  also  a  little  pro- 
boscis for  piercing  and  sucking.     This  contains 
several   lancets   so    small   and   so    sharp   that 
together   they   are   finer   and    sharper   than  a 
needle. 


244  Mosquito — Dragon  Fly. 

51.  Mosquitoes  are  produced  from  eggs  which  float  on 
the  water.     When  these  are  hatched  they  are  little  worms 
and  seem  to  hang  from  the  surface  of  the  water  head 
downward,  when  they  are  called  '"  Wigglers."    They  change 
their  skins  several  times,  then  become  a  kind  of  Chrysalis 
in  a  little  case  or  cocoon,  which,  like  the  Caterpillar,  they 
soon  burst,  and,  drying  their  newly  found  wings,  they  fly 
away  into  the  air  in  search  of  food. 

52.  They  find  their  food  in  the  dew  and  in  the  juices 
of  flowers  and  plants.     Some  kinds  are  active  by  day, 
others  by  night.     Those  which  attack  man  and  beast  for 
blood  are  the  females  only.     The  "  Wigglers  "  feed  raven- 
ously on  the  animalcules  in  ponds  and  marshes,  and  thus 
aid  in  purifying  the  water. 

53.  The  eggs  become  perfect  Insects  in  three  weeks, 
and  many  broods  are  hatched  every  warm  season. 

54.  Mosquitoes  infest  forests  and  marshy  places   in 
every  country  and  in  every  climate ;  in  cold  Siberia  and 
Lapland,  as  well  as  in  the  hot  valley  of  the  Amazon. 

55.  The  GNAT,  HOUSE  FLY,  and  Ox  FLY  belong  to  the 
same  order  of  Insects  as  the  Mosquito. 

56.  The   DRAGON    FLY  has  a  long,  slender 
body  and  four  long,  narrow  wings. 

57.  Its  thin,  crisp  wings  are  as  clear  as  glass, 
reflecting  all  the  colors  of   the  rainbow,  and 
seem  to  be  in  rapid  and  almost  constant  mo- 
tion.    While  flying,  it  catches  multitudes  of 
Mosquitoes,  Gnats,  Beetles,  Flies,    and   other 
Insects. 


The  Butterfly. 


Blackboard  Drawing:  Honey  Bee,  lengrth  of  body,  half  inch; 
Dragon  Fly,  3  inches. 

58.  They  are  therefore  beneficial,  and  not  in 
the  least  injurious  to  man  or  child  (although  it 
bears,  in  some  places,  the  frightful  name  of 
"  Devil's  Darning  Needle  "). 

59.  It  undergoes  changes  from  the  egg  to  the  worm 
and   the   chrysalis,  in   the   water,    occupying  two  years. 
When  its  wings  are  ready,  it  rises  above  its  old  home  in 
the  marsh  or  the  pool,  to  fly,  shine,  chase,  kill,  eat,  and 
die,  all  in  a  single  season. 

60.  BUTTERFLIES,  like  other  Insects  which 
fly,  have   two  long,  slender   horns  or  feelers, 
which  they  can  turn  in  every  direction. 

6 1.  When  they  lay  their  eggs,  they  fasten  them  to  some 
plant  or  leaf,  with  a  sort  of  glue  of  their  own  making. 
There  they  remain  until  hatched  into  a  kind  of  worm, 
which  is  called  a  caterpillar  if  it  has  legs,  or  a  grub  if  it 
has  no  legs. 

62.  The  Caterpillar  eats  enormously,  grows 
rapidly,  and  often  changes  its  skin. 


246  Caterpillar — Hoiisc  Fly. 

63.  When  about  six  weeks  old  it  stops  eating,   and 
covers  itself  with  a  kind  of  cobweb  or  cocoon,  which  it 
fastens  to  a   convenient   branch.      There  it  hangs  as  a 
chrysalis,  until  it  bursts  the  case  and  sails  into  the  air  on 
beautifully  colored  wings  to  spend  the  rest  of  its  short  life 
in  flitting  among  flowers  and  blossoms  and  sipping  honey. 

64.  The  microscope  shows  that  the  wings  of  the  But- 
terfly are  covered  with  numberless  little  scales  of  every 
variety  of  form  and  color,  and  that  its  eyes  are  composed 
of  a  great  many  smaller  eyes. 

65.  Butterflies  generally  live  but  one  season, 
although  some  live  through  the  winter. 

66.  The  HOUSE  FLY  has  two  wings,  six  legs, 
a  sucking  proboscis  for  taking  its  food,  and  two 
great  eyes  which  are  composed  of  4,000  small 
eyes. 

67.  Its  feet  are   remarkably  formed  to   enable  it  to 
creep  up  smooth  surfaces  like  glass  or  on  ceilings. 

68.  It  holds  on  by  means  of  a  gum  or  sticky  substance 
with  which  its  feet  are  supplied ;  some  say  it  holds  on  by 
means  of  sharp  little  hooks  on  the  feet ;  and  others  say  its 
feet,  when  pressed  against  glass  or  the  ceiling,  form  vacu- 
ums, and  that  the  fly  is  held  on  by  the  pressure  of  the  air 
(as  explained  on  page  74). 

69.  Most  Flies  die  when  frost  comes;   but  some  of 
those  which  hide  away  in  warm  nooks  and  corners  live 
just  long  enough  to  lay  a  great  many  eggs  the  next  sum- 
mer.    In  a  few  hours  these  eggs  are  hatched  into  little 
grubs  which,  in  a  few  days,  become  flies. 


Review — Spelling —  Composition.       247 


REVIEW    OF    CHAPTER    XX. 

Mention  the  best  known  insects. 

(The  word  insect  means  cut  into;  and  these  creatures  are  so  called  because 
they  are  composed  of  parts  which  seem  almost  separated  from  each  other.) 

What  can  you  say  of  the  vast  numbers  of  insects  ?  Do  some 
insects  change  their  forms?  What  is  the  first  change?  From  the 
egg  to  a  Caterpillar..  The  second  ?  From  a  Caterpillar  to  a  Chrysa- 
lis. The  third  ?  From  a  Chrysalis  to  a  Butterfly.  How  long  do 
most  Butterflies  live  ?  House  Flies?  Grasshoppers? 

Mention  some  very  destructive  insects.  Some  very  annoying 
ones  ?  Some  very  useful  and  valuable  ones  ?  What  kinds  are 
noted  for  their  industry? 

What  can  you  say  about  the  Locust  and  Grasshopper?  Where 
have  they  been  very  destructive ?  About  the  Mosquito?  About 
the  Silkworm  ?  About  the  Ant?  How  long  do  most  Ants  live  ? 

How  many  kinds  of  Bees  in  every  hive?  What  can  you  say  of 
the  Queen  Bee  ?  Of  the  Workers  ?  Of  the  Drones  ?  Of  Hum- 
ble  Bees  ? 

What  insects  are  similar  to  the  Grasshopper?  What  two  kinds 
of  Crickets  are  there?  What  can  you  say  of  Crickets? 

Are  Dragon  Flies  dangerous,  or  useful  ?  How  are  they  useful  ? 
How  are  Mosquitoes  useful  ? 

Describe  the  House  Fly.  What  can  you  say  of  its  eyes?  How 
long  does  it  live  ? 


SPELLING     AND     WRITING     EXERCISE. 


WRITE  A  COMPOSITION  about  Insects, — or  Locusts, — or  Silkworms, 
— or  Bees,— or  Ants,  as  the  Teacher  may  direct. 


About  the  United  States. 


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Into  what  is  each  State  and  Territory  divided?  Into 
Counties*  Which  is  the  larger,  a  County,  or  a  State  ? 
A  State. 

For  how  many  years  have  these  States  been  governed  by 
men  elected  by  their  own  people  ?  Over  one  hundred  years. 

Who  governed  this  country  before  that  ?  Men  sent  here 
by  the  King  of  England.  What  country  of  North  America 
is  still  subject  to  Great  Britain  ?  Canada. 

What  are  some  of  the  causes  of  this  country's  great- 
ness ?  Its  free  government,  its  great  extent,  its  fertile  fields, 
its  rich  mines,  its  many  mills,  and  its  industrious  people. 

On  what  planet  do  you  live?  The  Earth,  or  World. 
On  what  Hemisphere  ?  The  Western.  In  what  Grand 
Division  ?  North  America.  In  what  country  ?  The  United 
States.  In  what  State  ?  In  what  county  ?  In  what  part 
of  the  Western  Continent  is  North  America  ?  The  northern 
part.  In  what  part  of  North  America  is  the  country  we 
live  in  ?  In  the  central  part.  In  what  part  of  this  country 
is  the  State  you  live  in  ?  In  what  part  of  your  State  is  the 
county  you  live  in  ?  In  what  part  of  your  county  is  the 
city,  town,  or  village  you  live  in  ? 

Some  cities  extend  over  their  counties,  as  the  City  and  County  of  Philadel- 
phia are  the  same  in  extent. 

What  State  is  north  of  this  State?  East?  South? 
West?  What  county  is  north  of  this  county?  East? 
South  ?  West  ? 

You  may  draw  a  map  of  your  County,  on  a  piece  of  paper  as  large  as  your 
hand  ;  marking  first,  the  boundaries;  next,  the  highest  hills  or  mountains  (if 
any) ;  next,  the  streams  which  run  through  it ;  then  the  cities,  towns,  or  vil- 
lages, the  churches,  schoolhouses,  railroads,  bridges,  etc.,  as  shown  on  page 
39.  Then  you  may  draw  on  a  piece  of  paper,  as  large  as  a  leaf  in  your  copy- 
book, a  map  of  your  State,  showing  its  boundaries,  highest  mountains,  largest 
rivers,  its  capital,  and  the  part  in  which  your  County  is  situated.  Observe  that 
your  County  is  but  a  small  portion  of  your  State. 

*  In  Louisiana  these  divisions  are  called  Parishes. 


About  the   United  States. 


253 


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TOPICS  FOR  DRILL  ON  TTJE  PICTORIAL  CH^RT, 
AND  FOR  WRITING  LETTERS. 

The  Teacher,  in  pointing  to  the  various  objects  on  the  chart 
may  describe  and  dwell  on  each  topic  to  the  extent  best  suited  to 
the  class. 

Figures  in  parentheses  correspond  with  those  on  the  key  to  the 
chart. 

The  Ocean  (l)  covers  how  much  of  the  Earth's  sur- 
face,— What  inhabit  the  ocean, — Which  are  the  largest  of 
these  animals  and  fish — their  sizes, — Which  useful  for 
oil — for  furs — for  food — each  where  caught, — Which  are 
dangerous, — Which  are  very  curious, — Shell-fish, — Pearls 
— where  and  how  obtained — their  value, — Corals, — 
Sponge, — Ocean  voyages — how  conducted, — Currents  or 
streams  in  ocean, — Gulf  Stream— its  effects  on  England, 
Ireland,  and  other  parts  of  Western  Europe.  Pages  2 1  to  33. 

Vapor  (2)  rises  from  what,  by  what  means — its 
changes,  by  what  caused — forms  what.  Page  16. 

Rain  (3),  from  what  does  it  come — of  what  formed — 
effects  and  uses, — What  are  formed  from  it, — Where  does 
it  go, — Voyage  of  a  drop  of  water.  Pages  15  to  19. 

Rivers — how  formed, — Waterfalls  (9), — Rapids  (12) — 
turn  mill-wheels,  pages  60,  61, — float  logs — saw-mills, 
pages  62,  63 — wear  channels  in  ground  and  rock,  page  67, 
— Canons  (ll) — carry  soft  soil  to  mouths  forming  Deltas, 
See  land  between  lower  lake  and  ocean,  in  chart;  also  page 
64 — overflows, — Nile  River,  page  66 — facilities  for  navi- 
gation, commerce,  and  manufacturing—sites  for  cities, 
towns,  etc. 


256  Topics  for  Drill 

Ship-yards  and  Floating  Docks  (34)  on  bank  of 
river, — Construction  and  uses  of  Floating  and  Dry  Docks, 
— Name  some.  Page  53. 

Ships — how  built,  —  Steamships — how  built,  —  a 
launch, — what  is  it, — how  ships  move, — how  steamships 
move, — names  of  masts,  sails,  etc., — what  they  carry, — 
Steam, — what  is  it, — how  move  wheels, — names  of  parts 
of  machinery, — Great  Eastern, — iron-clads, — battle  be- 
tween Monitor  and  Merrimac — In  what  time  is  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  crossed  by  steamships — by  sailing  vessels. 
Pages  45  to  56. 

Canals  (14,  15)— how  built — their  uses,— Locks— how 
boats  are  lowered  and  raised,  pages  82  to  84, — Name  some 
canals.  Page  85. 

Reservoirs  (16), — What  are  they— their  use, — Aque- 
ducts,— What  are  they — their  use — how  water  fills  them 
— how  Chicago  and  Cleveland  are  supplied  with  fresh 
water — where  from.  Page  86. 

Straits  and  Channels  (21),— What  are  they— what 
do  they  connect — what  do  they  separate, — Mention  some. 

Mountains  (4), — What  are  they — highest  covered 
with  what, — Melting  snow  forms  what, — Minerals  they 
contain — their  trees,  mines,  and  mountain  streams, — 
How  Mines  (30)  are  constructed —  coal,  how  obtained — 
how  formed  -charcoal— burning  gas — dangers  in  mines  — 
iron,  how  made, — silver,  how  obtained — gold — tin — lead — 
copper. 

Salt — how  and  where  obtained, — Chute  or  Shoot 
(31), — what  use.  Pages  144  to  156. 

Mountain  Lake  (7) — *rom  what  formed, — Name  the 


On  the  Pictorial  Chart.  257 

largest  lakes  in  the  world— lakes  at  different  elevations — 
lake  fish — water  fresh,  or  salt.     Pages  68  and  29. 

Volcanoes  (5),— What  are  they— dangerous, — What 
celebrated  volcano  in  Italy, — What  cities  destroyed— how. 
Pages  163  to  165. 

Island  (18)  and  Peninsula  (19),— What  are  they— 
the  difference  between  them — points  of  land  called  what, 
— Point  to  lighthouse  on  cape — on  promontory — differ- 
ence between  cape  and  promontory — Mention  some  im- 
portant islands.  Page  78. 

Watershed  (29),  a  high  ridge  from  which  streams 
flow  in  different  directions, — What  is  on  watershed  in  the 
chart  (53), — how  a  windmill  works — its  use — where  numer- 
ous. Page  169. 

Mills  (35) — how  built — where  built — different  kinds, — 
how  flour  is  made,— how  lumber  is  sawed, — Saw-mills — 
what  kinds  of  trees  are  sawed  into  boards,  etc., — kinds  of 
wood  used  for  building  houses,  ships,  railroads,  furniture, 
pianos,  fences,  and  wagons.  Page  98. 

Trees, — What  kinds  of  trees  are  raised  or  kept  for 
shade — for  ornament— for  their  leaves — for  their  bark — 
for  their  sap  —for  their  fruits — for  medicines, — how  trees 
begin  to  grow— how  to  tell  the  age  of  trees — what  grow 
only  in  warm  climates, — how  sap  moves, — uses  of  leaves. 

The  Plains  in  chart  contain  farms  yielding  useful 
crops, — Which  are  the  most  useful  for  food — for  clothing 
— for  sugar — for  drinks, — crops  sent  to  cities  and  towns 
on  railroads,  canals,  and  rivers,— What  crops  grow  best 
in  warm  climates, — Can  cotton  grow  as  far  north  as  wheat, 
— Do  oranges  and  bananas  grow  as  far  north  as  apples 


258  Topics  for  Drill. 

and  pears, — What  is  India-rubber, — Where  obtained — 
mahogany  and  rosewood, — What  country  produces  the 
most  cotton — wheat  and  corn — tea — coffee.  Pages  98  to 
127. 

Lassoing  Cattle  (41) — how — where — uses  of  cattle. 
Pages  143  and  203. 

On  Western  Plains  in  the  chart,  Indians  are  hunt- 
ing buffaloes  (42), — how  killed — what  parts  of  the  buffalo 
are  useful  to  people — other  animals  of  the  buffalo  kind, — 
Where  do  these  Indians  mostly  live — their  occupations, — 
how  they  look,  dress,  live — their  dwellings — how  they  fight 
— how  treated  by  white  men.  Pages  97,  142,  and  205. 

Emigrants  (40)  move  by  railroads  and  by  wagons, — In 
what  direction  do  most  emigrants  move  in  this  country, — 
From  what  countries  of  Europe  have  many  come, — Where 
settle— their  occupation— benefits  to  Western  States  and 
Territories,  —Which  are  being  rapidly  settled, — What  large 
Southern  State  receives  many  emigrants.  Page  79. 

Vineyard  (46), — What  grow  there — what  made  from 
grapes — what  countries  famous  for  grapes  and  wine — how 
grapes  are  gathered  —how  wine  is  made — different  kinds 
of  wine — raisins.  Page  in. 

Wells  and  Pumps  (52),  how  drinking  water  is  ob- 
tained—wells how  dug— water  how  raised— how  pumps 
work — chain  pump — suction  pump — vacuum — Artesian 
wells,  how  made,  their  depth— oil  wells— salt  wells. 
Pages  70  to  75. 

Bridges,  Suspension  Bridge  (54)— different  kinds  of 
bridges — how  built — for  what  purpose— of  what  materials, 
— Mention  some  celebrated  bridges, — How  foundations 
are  built  under  water— divers — diving-armor— diving-bells. 
Pages  88  to  91. 


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